Outline of thought

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to thought (thinking):

A thinking chimpanzee

Thought (also called thinking) is the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world. Thinking is manipulating information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking, produces more thoughts. A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound or even control an emotional feeling.

Nature of thought

Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the following:

An activity taking place in a:
- brain – organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind.
  - mind – abstract entity with the cognitive faculties of consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. Having a mind is a characteristic of living creatures.[1][2] Activities taking place in a mind are called mental processes or cognitive functions.
- computer (see § Machine thought below) – general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations (an algorithm) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
An activity of intelligence – intelligence is the intellectual process of which is marked by cognition, motivation, and self-awareness.[3] Through intelligence, living creatures possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make decisions, retaining, and use language to communicate. Intelligence enables living creatures to experience and think.
- A type of mental process – something that individuals can do with their minds. Mental processes include perception, memory, thinking, volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.
Thought as a biological adaptation mechanism[4]
- Neural Network explanation: Thoughts are created by the summation of neural outputs and connections of which vectors form. These vectors describe the magnitude and direction of the connections and action between neurons. The graphs of these vectors can represent a network of neurons whose connections fire in different ways over time as synapses fire. These large thought vectors in the brain cause other vectors of activity. For example: An input from the environment is received by the neural network. The network changes the magnitude and outputs of individual neurons. The altered network outputs the symbols needed to make sense of the input.

Types of thoughts

Concept – Mental representation or an abstract object
- Abstract concept – Classifications that denote whether a term describes an object with a physical referent or one with no physical referents
- Concrete concept – Classifications that denote whether a term describes an object with a physical referent or one with no physical referents
Conjecture – Proposition in mathematics that is unproven
Decision (see Decision-making)
Definition – Statement that attaches a meaning to a term
Explanation – Set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies causes
Hypothesis – Proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem
Idea – Mental image or concept
Logical argument
Logical assertion
Mental image – Representation in an individual's mind of the physical world outside of that individual
Percept / Perception
Premise – Statement that an argument claims will induce or justify a conclusion
Proposition – Non-linguistic meaning of a sentence
Syllogism – Type of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning
Theory – Supposition or system of ideas intended to explain something
Thought experiment – Considering hypothesis, theory, or principle for the purpose of thinking through its consequences

Content of thoughts

Argument – Attempt to persuade or to determine the truth of a conclusion
Belief – Psychological state of holding a proposition or premise to be true
Communication – Act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and rules
Data – individual units of information
Information – That which informs; the answer to a question of some kind; that from which data and knowledge can be derived
Knowledge – Familiarity, awareness, or understanding of information or skills acquired through experience or education
Schema – Pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them

Types of thought (thinking)

Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes.

Animal thought

Human thought

Analysis
Awareness – State or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
Calculation – Arithmetical calculations using only the human brain
- Estimation – Process of finding an approximation, which is a value that is usable for some purpose, though uncertain
Categorization – A process in which ideas and objects are grouped according to their characteristics and the relationships between them
Cognitive restructuring
Computational thinking
Convergent thinking
Counterfactual thinking
Critical thinking – The analysis of facts to form a judgment
Data thinking
Evaluation – A systematic determination of a subject's merit, worth and significance,
Habit – Routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously
Integrative thinking
Internal monologue (surface thoughts)
Introspection – Examining one's own thoughts and feelings
Learning – Any process in an organism in which a relatively long-lasting adaptive behavioral change occurs as the result of experience and memory
Parallel thinking
Prediction – Statement about a future event
Recollection
Stochastic thinking
Strategic thinking
Training – Acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of teaching or practice
Visual thinking

Classifications of thought

Bloom's taxonomy – Classification system in education
Dual process theory – Psychological theory of how thought can arise in two different ways
Fluid and crystallized intelligence
Higher-order thinking – A concept of education reform
Theory of multiple intelligences – Theory of intelligence proposed by Howard Gardner
Three-stratum theory
Williams' taxonomy

Creative processes

Brainstorming – Group creativity technique
Cognitive module
Creativity
Creative problem solving
Creative writing – Academic discipline concerned with creating literature
Creativity techniques
Design thinking – Processes by which design concepts are developed

Divergent thinking – A method of generating creative ideas
Imagination – Creative ability
Lateral thinking
Noogenesis – Emergence and evolution of intelligence
Six Thinking Hats
Speech act – Utterance that serves a performative function
Speed thinking
Stream of consciousness
Thinking outside the box – A metaphor for unconventional thinking

Decision-making

Choice – Deciding between multiple options
Cybernetics – the study of computer of how governing automatic processes and communications
Decision theory
Executive system
Goals and goal setting
Judgement – Decision making; evaluation of evidence to make a decision
Planning
Rational choice theory – Sociological theory
Speech act – Utterance that serves a performative function
Value (personal and cultural)
Value judgment

Erroneous thinking

Black and white thinking
Catastrophization
Cognitive bias – Systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment
Cognitive distortion – Exaggerated or irrational thought patterns
Dysrationalia – Inability to think and behave rationally despite adequate intelligence
Emotional reasoning
Exaggeration
Foolishness – Unawareness or lack of social norms which causes offence, annoyance, trouble and/or injury
Fallacies – Argument that uses faulty reasoning (see also List of fallacies)
- Fallacies of definition
- Logical fallacy
Groupthink – A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people
Irrationality – Thinking, talking, or acting without inclusion of rationality
Linguistic error – Deviation from what is corrects
Magical thinking – Belief that unrelated events are causally connected despite the absence of any plausible causal link between them
Minimisation (psychology)
Motivated reasoning – Using emotionally-biased reasoning to produce justifications or make decisions
Rationalization (psychology) – Attempt to justify behavior or attitudes with inappropriate logical reasoning
Rhetoric – Art of discourse
Straight and Crooked Thinking (book)
Target fixation
Wishful thinking

Emotional intelligence (emotionally based thinking)

Emotional intelligence – Capability to understand one's emotions and use it to guide thinking and behavior

Acting – the legal meaning
Affect logic
Allophilia
Attitude (psychology) – Psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person
Curiosity – Quality related to inquisitive thinking
Elaboration likelihood model
Emotion – Subjective, conscious experience characterised primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental statess and feelings
Emotion and memory – Critical factors contributing to the emotional enhancement effect on human memory
Emotional contagion
Empathy – The capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing
Epiphany (feeling) – Sudden understanding of something's essence
Mood (psychology) – Relatively long lasting emotional, internal and subjective state
Motivation – Psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal.
Propositional attitude
Rhetoric – Art of discourse
Self actualization
Self control
Self-esteem – Term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall emotional evaluation of his or her own worth
Self-determination theory
Social cognition – Study of cognitive processes involved in social interactions
Will (philosophy)
Volition (psychology) – Cognitive process by which an individual decides on and commits to a particular course of action

Problem solving

Problem solving – Generic and ad hoc approach to problem solving

Problem solving steps
- Problem finding – Problem discovery
- Problem shaping
Process of elimination
Systems thinking
- Critical systems thinking
Problem-solving strategy – steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the ‘problem-solving cycle’ (Bransford & Stein, 1993). In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, figure-out the resources at the user's disposal, monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy.
- Abstraction – Conceptual process where general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples – solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system
- Analogy – cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another – using a solution that solves an analogous problem
- Brainstorming – Group creativity technique – (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found
- Divide and conquer – breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
- Hypothesis testing – assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption
- Lateral thinking – approaching solutions indirectly and creatively

- - Oblique Strategies – Set of cards intended to promote creativity
  - Parallel thinking
  - Provocative operation
  - Six Thinking Hats
- Means-ends analysis – choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
- Method of focal objects – synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new
- Morphological analysis – assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
- Proof – try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it
- Reduction – transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
- Research – Systematic study undertaken to increase knowledge – employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
- Root cause analysis – Method of identifying the fundamental causes of faults or problems – identifying the cause of a problem
- Thinking outside the box – A metaphor for unconventional thinking
- Trial-and-error – testing possible solutions until the right one is found
- Troubleshooting – Form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes –
Problem-solving methodology
- 5 Whys
- Decision cycle
- Eight Disciplines Problem Solving
- GROW model
- How to Solve It
- Learning cycle – A concept of how people learn from experience
- OODA loop – Observe–orient–decide–act cycle (observe, orient, decide, and act)
- PDCA (plan–do–check–act)
- Problem structuring methods
- RPR Problem Diagnosis (rapid problem resolution)
- TRIZ (in Russian: Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch, "theory of solving inventor's problems")
- Vertical thinking

Reasoning

Abstract thinking – Conceptual process where general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples
Adaptive reasoning
Analogical reasoning – cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject to another
Analytic reasoning
Case-based reasoning
Critical thinking – The analysis of facts to form a judgment
Defeasible reasoning – Reasoning that is rationally compelling, though not deductively valid – from authority: if p then (defeasibly) q
Diagrammatic reasoning – reasoning by means of visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by linguistic or algebraic means
Emotional reasoning (erroneous) – a cognitive distortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the point the subject is unwilling or unable to accept the reality of a situation because of it.
Fallacious reasoning (erroneous) – logical errors
Heuristic – Problem-solving method that is sufficient for immediate solutions or approximationss
Historical thinking
Intuitive reasoning
Lateral thinking
Logic – The study of inference and truth / Logical reasoning
- Abductive reasoning – Form of logical inference which seeks the simplest and most likely explanation – from data and theory: p and q are correlated, and q is sufficient for p; hence, if p then (abducibly) q as cause
- Deductive reasoning – Method of reasoning by which premises understood to be true produce logically certain conclusions – from meaning postulate, axiom, or contingent assertion: if p then q (i.e., q or not-p)
- Inductive reasoning – theory formation; from data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: (inducibly) "if p then q"; hence, if p then (deducibly-but-revisably) q
- Inference – Act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true
Moral reasoning – process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic.[5] This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Probabilistic reasoning – from combinatorics and indifference: if p then (probably) q
Proportional reasoning – using "the concept of proportions when analyzing and solving a mathematical situation."[6]
Rational thinking
Semiosis
Statistical reasoning – from data and presumption: the frequency of qs among ps is high (or inference from a model fit to data); hence, (in the right context) if p then (probably) q
Strategic thinking
Synthetic reasoning
Verbal reasoning – understanding and reasoning using concepts framed in words
Visual reasoning – process of manipulating one's mental image of an object in order to reach a certain conclusion – for example, mentally constructing a piece of machinery to experiment with different mechanisms

Machine thought

Artificial creativity
Automated reasoning
- Commonsense reasoning
- Model-based reasoning
- Opportunistic reasoning
- Qualitative reasoning – automated reasoning about continuous aspects of the physical world, such as space, time, and quantity, for the purpose of problem solving and planning using qualitative rather than quantitative information
- Spatial–temporal reasoning
- Textual case based reasoning
Computer program (recorded machine thought instructions)
Human-based computation

Organizational thought

Organizational thought (thinking by organizations)

Management information system – Information system used for decision-making
Organizational communication
Organizational planning
- Strategic planning
Strategic thinking
Systems theory – Interdisciplinary study of systems

Aspects of the thinker

Aspects of the thinker which may affect (help or hamper) his or her thinking:

Ability – Ability to influence the behavior of others
Aptitude – Ability; competence to do a certain kind of work at a certain level
Attitude – Psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or characterizes a person
Behavior – Way that one acts in different situations
Cognitive style
Common sense – Sound practical judgement concerning everyday matters; basic ability to perceive, understand, and judge
Experience – The effect or influence of exposure to an event or subject
Instinct – Inherent inclination of a living organism towards a particular complex behavior
Intelligence – Ability to perceive, infer, retain, or apply information
Metacognition – Thinking about thinking, higher-order thinking skills
Mental image – Representation in an individual's mind of the physical world outside of that individual
Mindset – Term in decision theory and general systems theory
Preference
Rationality
Skill – The ability to carry out a task
Wisdom – The ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight
- Sapience

Properties of thought

Accuracy and precision – Closeness to true value or to each other
Cogency
Dogma – A principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.
Effectiveness – Capability of producing the desired result
Efficacy – Able to finish something satisfactorly
Efficiency – Degree to which a process minimizes waste of resources
Freethought
Frugality
Meaning
Prudence
Rights – Fundamental legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory
Skepticism – Questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief
Soundness – Logical term meaning that an argument is valid and its premises are true
Validity – Argument whose conclusion must be true if its premises are
Value theory
Wrongdoing – Act that is illegals or immoral

Fields that study thought

Linguistics – Study of human language
Philosophy – Study of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct
- Logic – The study of inference and truth
- Philosophy of mind – Branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of the mind
Neuroscience – Scientific study of the nervous system
- Cognitive science – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes
- Psychology – Study of mental functions and behaviours
  - Cognitive psychology – Subdiscipline of psychology
  - Social psychology – Scientific study of social effects on people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
- Psychiatry – Branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, of mental disorders
Mathematics – Field of study
Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods

Thought tools and thought research

Cognitive model
Design tool
Diagram
- Argument map
- Concept map – Diagram showing relationships among concepts
- Mind map – System or map used to visually organize information
DSRP
Intelligence amplification
Language – Capacity to communicate using signs, such as words or gestures
Meditation – Mental practice of focus on a particular object, thought or activity to improve one's mind
Six Thinking Hats
Synectics

History of thinking

History of reasoning

History of artificial intelligence – Overview of the history of artificial intelligence
History of cognitive science
History of the concept of creativity
History of ideas
History of logic
History of psychometrics

Nootropics (cognitive enhancers and smart drugs)

Nootropic – Drug, supplement, or other substance that improves cognitive function

Substances that improve mental performance:

5-Hydroxytryptophan, also known as 5-HTP
Adrafinil (Olmifon)
Aniracetam
Withania somnifera, also known as Ashwagandha – Species of plant
Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi)
Caffeine – A central nervous system stimulant
Acetylcarnitine, also known as Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR)
Meclofenoxate, also known as Centrophenoxine – Chemical compound
Choline – Chemical compound that is an essential nutrient for humans and many other animals
Cholinergic
Chromium – Chemical element with atomic number 24
Coenzyme Q10 – Chemical compound
Coffee – Brewed beverage
Creatine – chemical compound
Dimethylethanolamine (DMAE)
Ergoloid mesylates (Hydergine)
Huperzine A
Idebenone
Inositol – Carbocyclic sugar
L-DOPA – Chemical compound
Lecithin – A generic term for amphiphilic substances of plant and animal origin
Lemon balm (Melissa Officinalis)
Lipoic acid
Methylphenidate – Medication of the stimulant class (Ritalin)
Modafinil – Medication which increases wakefulness (Provigil)
Oxiracetam
Phenibut – Chemical compound
Phenylalanine – Type of α-amino acid
Piracetam (Nootropil)
Pramiracetam
Pyritinol (Enerbol)
Rhodiola rosea – Species of flowering plant in the stonecrop family Crassulaceae
Selegiline (Deprenyl)
Eleutherococcus senticosus, also known as Siberian ginseng
Hypericum perforatum, also known as St John's Wort – Flowering plant in the St John's wort family Hypericaceae
Sutherlandia frutescens
Tea – Drink made from infusing boiling water with the leaves of the tea plant
Theanine
Theophylline
Tryptophan
Tyrosine – Amino acid
Vasopressin
Vinpocetine
Vitamin B₃, also known as Nicotinic acid
Vitamin B₅
Vitamin B₆ – Class of chemically related vitamins
Vitamin B₁₂
Vitamin C – Nutrient in citrus fruits and other food
Pausinystalia johimbe, also known as Yohimbe

Organizational thinking concepts

Attribution theory
Communication – Act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and rules
Concept testing
Evaporating Cloud
Fifth discipline
Groupthink – A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people
Collective intelligence, also known as Group synergy – Group intelligence that emerges from collective efforts
Ideas bank – Resource for the posting, exchange, discussion, and polishing of new ideas
Language interpretation
Learning organization
Metaplan
Operations research – Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods
Organization development
Organizational communication
Organizational culture – Encompasses values and behaviours that contribute to the unique social and psychological environment of an organization
Organizational ethics
Organizational learning
Rhetoric – Art of discourse
Smart mob – Digital-communication coordinated group
Theory of constraints
Think tank – Organization that performs policy research and advocacy
Wisdom of crowds – 2004 book by James Surowiecki

Teaching methods and skills

Active learning – Educational technique
Classical conditioning – Learning procedure in which biologically potent stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus
Directed listening and thinking activity
Discipline – Action or inaction that is regulated to be in accordance with a particular system of governance
Learning theory (education)
Mentorship – Guidance relationship
Operant conditioning – Type of associative learning process
Problem-based learning – Student-centered pedagogy
Punishment
Reinforcement – A consequence applied that will strengthen an organism's future behavior

Awards related to thinking

Awards for acts of genius

Nobel Prize – Set of annual international awards, primarily 5 established in 1895 by Alfred Nobel
Pulitzer Prize – Award for achievements in journalism, literature, and musical composition within the United States
MacArthur Fellows Program – prize awarded annually by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation

Organizations

Associations pertaining to thought
High IQ societies
- Mega Society – High IQ society
- Mensa – Largest and oldest high IQ society in the world
Mind Sports Organisations
- World Mind Sports Games
Think tank – Organization that performs policy research and advocacys

Media

Books

Handbook of Automated Reasoning

Periodicals

Television programs

Thinkabout (U.S. TV series)

Persons associated with thinking

Related concepts

Awareness and perception

Learning and memory

References

Dictionary.com, "mind": "1. (in a human or other conscious being) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the mind. 2. Psychology. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence."
Google definition, "mind": "The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness."
Tirri, Nokelainen (January 2012). Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education. Springer. ISBN 978-94-6091-758-5.
Danko Nikolić (2014). "Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC]".
"Definition of: Moral Reasoning". Retrieved 21 July 2011.
"Dictionary Search › proportional reasoning - Quizlet".
"History of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy". National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2011.

External links

The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts, Free Online Book

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[dict-1] Dictionary.com, "mind": "1. (in a human or other conscious being) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: the processes of the mind. 2. Psychology. the totality of conscious and unconscious mental processes and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; intelligence."

[2] Google definition, "mind": "The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness."

[3] Tirri, Nokelainen (January 2012). Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education. Springer. ISBN 978-94-6091-758-5.

[Nikolic2014-4] Danko Nikolić (2014). "Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC]".

[5] "Definition of: Moral Reasoning". Retrieved 21 July 2011.

[6] "Dictionary Search › proportional reasoning - Quizlet".

[nacbt-7] "History of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy". National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2011.