Tenetehara language

Tenetehára is a Tupi–Guarani language spoken in the state of Maranhão in Brazil. Sociolinguistically, it is two languages, Guajajara (Guazazzara) and Tembe, though these are mutually intelligible. Tembe was spoken by less than a quarter of its ethnic population of 820 in 2000; Guajajara, on the other hand, is more robust, being spoken by two thirds of its 20,000 people.

Tenetehára
Guajajara
Native to	Brazil
Region	Maranhão
Ethnicity	19,500 Guajajara (2006), 820 Tembé (1999), 60 Turiwara (1998)[1]
Native speakers	13,000 (2006)[1]
Language family	Tupian Tupí–Guaraní Tenetehara branch Tenetehára
Language codes
ISO 639-3	Either: gub – Guajajara tqb – Tembé
Glottolog	temb1276

History

Tenetehára speakers were first contacted in 1615 by a French expedition in the margins of the Pindaré river. They clashed against slaver raids until Jesuit missions were set up among them (1653-1755). After the Jesuits were expelled from Brazil, the various Tenetehára groups went back to a life with very limited contact with the settler society.

At the end of the 19th century the members of the community started to be employed as collectors of natural resources. After some abuse by white settlers in their vicinity, in 1901 the Guajajara group revolted against a nearby Capuchin missions and expelled them from their land. They have been in continuous conflict with clandestine loggers and illegal settlements in their land.

Phonetics and phonology

Tenetehára has a total of 21 phonemes: 14 consonants and 7 vowels. Each of the consonantal phonemes occurs as the initial C in CV and CVC syllables, while each of the vowels occurs as the nucleus in the four syllable patterns. Any phoneme of the class /t k m n ŋ w z r/ may occur in the syllable and word final C position, while /p k^w c ŋ^w ' h/ are limited in their distribution in that they do not occur in the final C position. Similarly, /ŋ ŋ^w/ have a somewhat limited distribution in that they never occur word-initially.[2]

Consonants in Tenetehára[3]

	Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Labial-velar	Glottal
Stop	p	t			k	kʷ	ʔ
Affricate		ts
Fricative			z				h
Flap			ɾ
Nasal	m		n		ŋ	ŋʷ
Approximant				j		w

Vowels in Tenetehára

	Front	Central	Back
High	i	ɨ	u
Mid	ɛ	ə	ɔ
Low		a

Tembe

Consonants in the Tembe dialect

		Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Labial-velar	Glottal
Stop	plain	p	t			k	kʷ	ʔ
	voiced		d
Fricative				s				h
Flap				ɾ
Nasal		m		n		ŋ	ŋʷ
Approximant					j		w

Vowels in the Tembe dialect

	Front	Central	Back
High	i	ɨ	u
Mid	e	ə	o
Low		a

Syntax

Tenetehára has a verb-subject-object word order. 2 Verbs are marked with person prefixes that reference the subject of the clause:

u-suka Zezin arapuha

third.person-kill Zezin deer

"Zezin killed a deer."

There are three verb classes, corresponding to transitive, intransitive and stative verbs. Each of these has a different set of verbal prefixes to mark the subject.

Even though it is a verb-initial language, Tenetehára has postpositions instead of prepositions, as would be expected cross-linguistically:

o-ho Zezin ko pe

third.person-go Zezin field to

"Zezin goes to the field."

A small group of adverbial words, that relate the sentence to its context, can appear in the first position in the clause, followed by the verb and the rest of the sentence.[2]

aipo o-ho ko pe

maybe third.person-go field to

"Maybe he went to the field."

References

1. Guajajara at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
   Tembé at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
2. David Bendor-Samuel (1969). Gramática Pedagógica da Língua Guajajara. Associação Internacional de Linguística SIL – Brasil. OCLC 896408604.
3. Bendor-Samuel, David (1972). Hierarchical structures in Guajajara.

External links

• Lev, Michael; Stark, Tammy; Chang, Will (2012). "Phonological inventory of Guajajára". The South American Phonological Inventory Database (version 1.1.3 ed.). Berkeley: University of California: Survey of California and Other Indian Languages Digital Resource.
• Lev, Michael; Stark, Tammy; Chang, Will (2012). "Phonological inventory of Tembé". The South American Phonological Inventory Database (version 1.1.3 ed.). Berkeley: University of California: Survey of California and Other Indian Languages Digital Resource.