China Eastern Airlines

China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited (simplified Chinese: 中国东方航空公司; traditional Chinese: 中國東方航空公司), also known as China Eastern, is an airline headquartered in the China Eastern Airlines Building,[3] on the grounds of Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport in Changning District, Shanghai.[4] It is one of the "Big Three" airlines (alongside Air China and China Southern Airlines) of the People's Republic of China, operating international, domestic and regional routes. Its main hubs are at Shanghai Pudong International Airport and Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport.[5]

"China Eastern" redirects here. For the geographical region, see East China. For airlines with similar names, see Eastern (disambiguation).
China Eastern Airlines
中国东方航空公司
Zhōngguó Dōngfāng Hángkōng Gōngsī
IATA ICAO Callsign
MU CES CHINA EASTERN
Founded25 June 1988 (1988-06-25)
Hubs
Secondary hubs
Focus cities
Frequent-flyer programEastern Miles
AllianceSkyTeam
Subsidiaries
Fleet size575
Destinations248
Parent company
  • China Eastern Air Holding Company
HeadquartersNo. 2550 Hongqiao Rd, Shanghai
Key people
  • Liu Shaoyong (Chairman)
Revenue CN¥85.25 billion (2012)[2]
Operating income CN¥4.228 billion (2012)[2]
Net income CN¥2.808 billion (2012)[2]
Total assets CN¥123.82 billion (2012)[2]
Total equity CN¥22.93 billion (2012)[2]
Employees80,000 (March, 2016)
Websiteceair.com
China Eastern Airlines
Simplified Chinese中国东方航空公司
Traditional Chinese中國東方航空公司
Abbreviation
Simplified Chinese东航
Traditional Chinese東航
Current headquarters at Shanghai Hongqiao Airport, shared with Shanghai Airlines

China Eastern Airlines is China's second-largest carrier by passenger numbers after China Southern Airlines. China Eastern and its subsidiary Shanghai Airlines became the 14th member of SkyTeam on 21 June 2011.[6] The parent company of China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited is China Eastern Air Holding Company.

History
The previous logo of China Eastern Airlines until 2014.

China Eastern Airlines was established on 25 June 1988 under the Civil Aviation Administration of China Huadong Administration. In 1997, China Eastern took over the unprofitable China General Aviation and also became the country's first airline to offer shares on the international market. In 1998 it founded China Cargo Airlines in a joint venture with COSCO. In March 2001, it completed the takeover of Great Wall Airlines.[5] China Yunnan Airlines and China Northwest Airlines merged into China Eastern Airlines in 2003. The company slogan is World-Class Hospitality with Eastern Charm (世界品位，东方魅力).

Liu Shaoyong in 2014

The Chinese government has a majority ownership stake in China Eastern Airlines (61.64%), while some shares are publicly held (H shares, 32.19%); A shares, 6.17%. On 20 April 2006 the media broke the news of a possible sale of up to 20% of its stake to foreign investors, including Singapore Airlines, Emirates and Japan Airlines, with Singapore Airlines confirming that negotiations were underway.[7][8]

After receiving approval from the State Council of China, it was announced that on 2 September 2007 Singapore Airlines and Temasek Holdings (holding company which owns 55% of Singapore Airlines) would jointly acquire shares of China Eastern Airlines.[9][10] On 9 November 2007 investors signed a final agreement to buy a combined 24% stake in China Eastern Airlines: Singapore Airlines would own 15.73% and Temasek Holdings an 8.27% stake in the airline.[11] Singapore Airlines' pending entry into the Chinese market prompted the Hong Kong carrier Cathay Pacific to attempt to block the deal by buying a significant stake in China Eastern and voting down the deal together with Air China (which already held an 11% stake in China Eastern) at the shareholders' meeting in December 2007.[12][13] However, on 24 September Cathay Pacific announced that it had abandoned these plans.[14]

Air China's parent company, state-owned China National Aviation Corporation, announced in January 2008 that it would offer 32% more than Singapore Airlines for the 24% stake in China Eastern, potentially complicating the deal that Singapore Airlines and Temasek had proposed.[15] However, minority shareholders declined the offer made by Singapore Airlines. It is thought that this was due to the massive effort made by Air China to buy the 24% stake.[16]

On 11 June 2009, it was announced that China Eastern Airlines would merge with Shanghai Airlines.[17] The merger of China Eastern and Shanghai Airlines was expected to reduce excess competition between the two Shanghai-based carriers while consolidating Shanghai's status as an international aviation hub. In February 2010 the merger was completed.[18] Shanghai Airlines became a wholly owned subsidiary of China Eastern Airlines. However, Shanghai Airlines retained its brand and livery. The new combined airline was expected to have over half of the market share in Shanghai, the financial hub of China. China Eastern Airlines also acquired China United Airlines in October 2010.[19]

In March 2012, it was announced that China Eastern was forging a strategic alliance with the Qantas Group to set up Jetstar Hong Kong, a new low cost airline to be based at Hong Kong International Airport, which would commence operations in 2013.[20] China Eastern would hold a 50% stake in the new airline, with the Qantas Group holding the other 50%, representing a total investment of US$198 million.[21] However, in June 2015, the Hong Kong authority refused to issue operating license to Jetstar Hong Kong. China Eastern and Qantas subsequently announced the end of the investment.

In April 2013, China Eastern got a temporary permit to operate in the Philippines, but the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines required them to obtain a technical permit and an airport slot.[22][23]

In 2012, China Eastern was awarded the “Golden Ting Award” at the China Capital Market Annual Conference 2012, recognizing it as one of the 50 most valuable Chinese brands by WPP and ranking in the top ten of FORTUNE China's CSR ranking 2013.

On 9 September 2014, China Eastern introduced a new logo and new livery.[24] In 2015, the airline entered a partnership with Delta Air Lines in which Delta will buy a 3.55% share in China Eastern for $450 million.[25]

China Eastern from 30 June 2015, launched new service to the US, as the Skyteam member plans three weekly Chengdu – Nanjing – Los Angeles operation with Airbus A330-200 (twin-jet) (A332) aircraft.[26]

In 2017, China Eastern Airlines reported a net profit of CNY6.4 billion ($983 million), up 41% over net income of CNY4.5 billion in 2016.[27]

On 26 February 2020, China Eastern Airlines launched OTT Airlines as a subsidiary to operate domestically produced aircraft, such as the Comac C919 and Comac ARJ21, in the Yangtze Delta region in addition to business jet operations.[28][29]

Destinations
Main article: List of China Eastern Airlines destinations

China Eastern Airlines has a strong presence on routes in Asia, North America and Australia. The airline looks to exploit the domestic market potential as it boosts flight frequencies from Shanghai to other Chinese cities. The airline is also accelerating the pace of international expansion by increasing flight frequencies to international destinations. In 2007 it began operations to New York City from Shanghai, making it the longest non-stop route for the airline. In 2016, China Eastern Airlines also launched direct flights from Shanghai to Prague, Amsterdam, Madrid and St. Petersburg.

Codeshare agreements

China Eastern Airlines has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:[30]

Fleet
China Eastern Airlines A320-200 taxiing at Kansai International Airport
China Eastern Airlines Airbus A330-200
A China Eastern Airlines Boeing 777-300ER at Los Angeles International Airport
China Eastern Yunnan Airlines Boeing 787-9 at Beijing Capital International Airport
China Eastern Airlines Airbus A350-900 at Beijing Capital International Airport

As of February 2021, the China Eastern Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft:[31][32][33]

China Eastern Airlines Passenger Fleet
Aircraft In service Orders Passengers Notes
P J+ J W Y Total
Airbus A319-100 36 — — — 8 — 114 122
Airbus A320-200 178 — — — 8 — 150 158
Airbus A320neo 47 23 — — 8 18 132 158 Deliveries through 2020[34]
Airbus A321-200 77 — — — 20 — 155 175
12 166 178
170 182
Airbus A330-200 30 — — — 30 — 202 232
204 234
24 240 264
Airbus A330-300 25 — — — 32 32 230 294
38 — 262 300
Airbus A350-900 8 12 — 4[35] 36 32 216 288 Deliveries through 2022[36][37]
Boeing 737-700 40 — — — 8 — 120 128
126 134
— 140 140
Boeing 737-800 109 — — — 20 — 138 158
12 150 162
8 156 164
162 170
18 150 176
— 168 186
Boeing 737 MAX 8 3 47 — — 8 18 150 176 Currently grounded
Deliveries through 2020[38]
Boeing 777-300ER 20 — 6 — 52 — 258 316
Boeing 787-9 3 2 — 4[39] 26 28 227 285 Deliveries through 2022[40]
Comac ARJ21-700 — 35[41] TBA Deliveries from 2025
Comac C919 — 20 TBA Launch customer[42]
Total 575 129

China Eastern Airlines was the first Chinese airline to place an order with Airbus. The backbone of the fleet is the A320 series, which are used primarily on domestic flights.

In 2005, China Eastern Airlines placed an order for 15 Boeing 787 Dreamliners. The airline subsequently cancelled its order owing to continuous delays, instead swapped the 787 order for Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft,[43]

On 18 October 2011, China Eastern Airlines placed an order for 15 Airbus A330s.[44][45]

On 27 April 2012, China Eastern Airlines ordered 20 Boeing 777-300ERs. The airline received its first 777-300ER aircraft on 26 September 2014.

In 2015 the airline acquired a further batch of 15 Airbus A330 aircraft for delivery in 2017 and 2018.[46]

In April 2016, China Eastern Airlines ordered 20 Airbus A350-900 and 15 Boeing 787-9 aircraft, with deliveries commencing in 2018.[40]

Fleet history
An Airbus A310-222 of China Eastern Airlines at the Beijing Civil Aviation Museum
A China Eastern Airlines Xian Y-7-100C at At Tianjin Binhai International
A McDonnell Douglas MD-11 of China Eastern Airlines

China Eastern Airlines has previously operated the following aircraft:

China Eastern Airlines Retired Fleet
Aircraft Introduced Retired Notes
Airbus A300-600R 1993 2015
Airbus A300-600RF 1993 2015
Airbus A310-200 1988 2006
Airbus A310-300 1988 1994
Airbus A340-300 1996 2012
Airbus A340-600 2003 2015
Boeing 737-200 2001 2005
Boeing 737-300 1998 2014
Boeing 767-300ER 2003 2011 Acquired from China Yunnan Airlines.
Bombardier CRJ-200ER 2004 2016
BAe 146-100 1986 2009
BAe 146-300 2003 2009
Embraer ERJ-145 2005 2016
Fokker 100 1992 1999
McDonnell Douglas MD-11 1991 2003
McDonnell Douglas MD-11F 1991 2003 Transferred to China Cargo Airlines
McDonnell Douglas MD-82 1988 2007
McDonnell Douglas MD-90-30 1997 2010
Xian MA-60 Un­known Un­known Acquired from Wuhan Airlines
Yakovlev Yak-42 Un­known Un­known Acquired from China General Aviation Corporation

Services

China Eastern offers first class, business class, premium economy, and economy.

First class

China Eastern offers first class on all Boeing 777s. A first-class seat comes with a flat bed seat, direct aisle access and a sliding door. The plane also comes with a bar for passengers to serve themselves snacks and socialize with others. Middle seats on the Boeing 777 can be turned into a double bed.[47]

Business plus/ Super premium suites[35]

The business plus product are found on all A350-900 and B787-9[39] aircraft. The suites come with bigger space along with excellent suite length compare to the business class seats. The business plus suites also feature sliding door and a minibar. The middle seats can be turned into a living room with seating for four. [35]

Business class

Business class comes in many different versions. On China Eastern's narrow-body fleet, business class seats are recliners arranged in an 2-2 configuration. On select A330, business class seats are either Zodiac Cirrus or Thompson Vantage XL which is in a 1-2-1 configuration, or it could be angled flat beds arranged in a 2-2-2 configuration. On its A350 and B787, business class seats are modified Thompson Vantage XL with doors similar to Delta one suites.[48] On its B777, business class seats are Zodiac Cirrus.[47]

Premium economy

Premium economy is found on all Boeing B787 and Airbus A350 airplanes.[49]

Economy

China Eastern offers complimentary meal service and select A330s, all A350s, B777s, and B787s have seatback entertainment.[50]

Eastern Miles

China Eastern Airlines's frequent-flyer program is called Eastern Miles (simplified Chinese: 东方万里行; traditional Chinese: 東方萬里行). Shanghai Airlines and China United Airlines, China Eastern subsidiaries, are also parts of the program. Eastern Miles members can earn miles on flights as well as through consumption with China Eastern's credit card. When enough miles are collected, members can be upgraded to Elite membership in three tiers: Platinum, Gold and Silver.[51]

Cargo
China Cargo Airlines Boeing 747-400ERF

After the merger with Shanghai Airlines, China Eastern Airlines signaled that it would combine the two carriers' cargo subsidiaries as well. The airline's new subsidiary cargo carrier, consisting of the assets of China Cargo Airlines, Great Wall Airlines and Shanghai Airlines Cargo, commenced operations in 2011 from its base in Shanghai, China's largest air cargo market.[52] China Eastern Airlines signed a strategic cooperation framework agreement with Shanghai Airport Group, which controls both Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport. The airline will allocate more capacity to Pudong Airport to open more international routes and boost flight frequencies on existing international and domestic trunk routes.

Subsidiaries

China Cargo Airlines
Main article: China Cargo Airlines

China Eastern Airlines's cargo subsidiary, China Cargo Airlines, is China's first all-cargo airline operating dedicated freight services using China Eastern Airlines' route structure. The cargo airline carries the same logo of China Eastern Airlines.

China United Airlines
Main article: China United Airlines

China United Airlines is a low-cost carrier based in Beijing Daxing International Airport. It became a subsidiary of China Eastern in 2010 as a result of acquisitions.[19]

OTT Airlines
Main article: OTT Airlines

OTT Airlines is an airline subsidiary that was launched in February 2020 to operate domestically produced aircraft like the Comac C919 and Comac ARJ21 in the Yangtze Delta region.[28][29]

Incidents and accidents
  • On 15 August 1989, an Antonov An-24 operating a domestic flight from Shanghai to Nanchang crashed on takeoff due to an engine failure, killing 34 of 40 people on board.[53]
  • On 6 April 1993, China Eastern Airlines Flight 583, a McDonnell-Douglas MD-11 flying from Beijing to Los Angeles via Shanghai, had an inadvertent deployment of the leading edge wing slats while cruising. The aircraft progressed through several violent pitch oscillations and lost 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of altitude. Two passengers were killed, and 149 passengers and 7 crew members were injured. The aircraft landed safely at Shemya.
  • On 26 October 1993, China Eastern Flight 5398 from Shenzhen to Fuzhou, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82 crashed near Fuzhou airport after a failed attempt to go around on approach, killing two of 80 on board.
  • On 21 November 2004, China Eastern Airlines Flight 5210 from Baotou to Shanghai, a Bombardier CRJ200, crashed in Inner Mongolia one minute after departure, killing all 53 occupants.
  • On 11 October 2016, two China Eastern Airlines aircraft were involved in a serious runway incursion incident at Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport. Flight 5643, an Airbus A320, was cleared for takeoff from runway 36L for a domestic flight to Tianjin. As it was accelerating down the runway, China Eastern Airlines Flight 5106, an Airbus A330-343 entered the active runway via taxiway B3. The aircraft had just landed on runway 36R after a flight from Beijing and had reportedly been cleared to taxi to the terminal. It left the runway via B3, crossed taxiway Bravo and entered the active departure runway via taxiway H3. This crossing is located 2110 meters from the threshold of runway 36L and 2400 meters from the point where the A320 began takeoff. The A320 was accelerating through 110 knots when the crew noted the A330 entering the runway. The crew selected TOGA thrust and continued their takeoff. The aircraft rotated at about 130 knots and climbed over the A330 with a separation of just 19 meters.[54]

See also

References
  1. 东航“四梁八柱”航线战略：“四梁”为上海、北京、昆明、西安四大枢纽市场，“八柱”则为广州、深圳、成都、厦门、南京、杭州、青岛、武汉八个重要市场。
  2. "Form 20-F China Eastern Airlines Corporation Limited". sec.gov. 2012. Archived from the original on 2015-06-07. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
  3. "Exhibit B." p. 2. "2550 Hongqiao Road Hongqiao International Airport China Eastern Airlines Building" (Archive)
  4. "China Eastern Airlines Corp. Ltd. (CEA) Archived 2016-03-31 at the Wayback Machine." Yahoo! Finance. Retrieved 2009-10-03.
  5. "Directory: World Airlines". Flight International. 3 April 2007. p. 64.
  6. Cantle, Katie (23 June 2011). "China Eastern becomes 14th SkyTeam member". ATWOnline. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
  7. Shanghai Daily
  8. "Channelnewsasia.com". 30 September 2007. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
  9. SIA approved to buy into China Eastern Archived 2016-01-07 at the Wayback Machine Flight Global, 31 August 2007
  10. "SIA, China Eastern Airlines announce strategic tie-up". Channel NewsAsia. 2 September 2007. Archived from the original on 4 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-02.
  11. "Singapore Airlines, Temasek sign China Eastern deal". Channel NewsAsia. 9 November 2007. Archived from the original on 11 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
  12. "Cathay Pacific to try and block Singapore Airlines: report". Agence France-Presse. Channel NewsAsia. 22 September 2007. Archived from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
  13. BBC 中文网 - 服务专区 - 纯文字页. BBC News. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
  14. Markets (24 September 2007). "Cathay Pacific abandons China Eastern plan". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
  15. Dyer, Geoff (6 January 2008). "/ Companies / Transport - Air China pursues China Eastern stake". Ft.com. Archived from the original on 8 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
  16. Anderlini, Jamil (8 January 2008). "Shareholders reject Singapore Air offer". FT.com. Retrieved 2008-01-08.
  17. "China Eastern Airlines announces detailed merger plan with Shanghai Airlines". News.xinhuanet.com. 12 July 2009. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
  18. "China Eastern Air Holding Company". Center for Aviation. Archived from the original on 15 December 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
  19. 关于联航 [About United Airlines] (in Chinese). China United Airlines. Archived from the original on 21 October 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
  20. "China Eastern Airlines and Qantas announce Jetstar Hong Kong". Jetstar Airways. 26 March 2012. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 2012-03-26.
  21. "Qantas creates Jetstar Hong Kong". Sky News Australia. 26 March 2012. Archived from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 2012-03-26.
  22. "China Eastern Airlines bags temporary permit - Civil Aeronautics Board :: Philippines". Cab.gov.ph. Archived from the original on 2014-03-24. Retrieved 2013-07-05.
  23. "China Eastern Airlines bags temporary permit | BusinessWorld Online". Bworldonline.com. 2013-04-17. Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
  24. "Archived copy" 东方航空正式发布全新VI体系. China Eastern Airlines. Archived from the original on 12 September 2014. Retrieved 14 September 2014.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  25. "East-West Partnership". Airliner World: 15. October 2015.
  26. Ltd. 2019, UBM (UK). "China Eastern Adds Chengdu / Nanjing – Los Angeles Service from late-June 2015". Routesonline. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
  27. "China Eastern's 2017 net profit up 41% as demand, exchange rates improve | Aviation Week Network". Archived from the original on 2018-12-14. Retrieved 2018-12-03.
  28. "China Eastern unveils OTT Airlines to operate Chinese-made jets". Reuters. 26 February 2020. Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  29. Zhou, Senhao (1 March 2020). "OTT Airlines unveiled, mainly to operate China-made aircraft like ARJ21 and C919". Comac. Archived from the original on 2 March 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  30. "Profile on China Eastern Airlines". CAPA. Centre for Aviation. Archived from the original on 2016-10-29. Retrieved 2016-10-29.
  31. "China Eastern Airlines Fleet Details and History". planespotters.net. 3 December 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  32. "Archived copy" 机型展示 - 中国东方航空公司. www.ceair.com (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2019.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  33. "Airbus Orders & Deliveries". Airbus. 31 December 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
  34. Shih, Kai-Chin. "Archived copy" 解读：东方航空购70架空客A320NEO飞机 总价63.7亿美元. ifeng (in Chinese). ifeng. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2017.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  35. "China Eastern Airbus A350 to fly Sydney-Shanghai from March 31". Executive Traveller. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  36. Bloomberg News (28 April 2016). "China Eastern to Buy 20 Airbus A350 Jets, 15 Boeing 787s". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2016.
  37. "Industry News / Opinions - Shanghai Airlines 787-9". Archived from the original on 2018-07-22. Retrieved 2018-07-22.
  38. Shih, Kai-Chin. "Archived copy" 东方航空向波音购买80架B737系列飞机 总价约74亿美元. ifeng (in Chinese). ifeng. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2017.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  39. "China Eastern Boeing 787 brings business class suites to Melbourne". Executive Traveller. Retrieved 2020-11-16.
  40. "China Eastern orders 20 A350-900s, 15 Boeing 787-9s | Aviation Week Network". Archived from the original on 2018-11-17. Retrieved 2018-12-03.
  41. "China's top airlines to buy ARJ21 jets from COMAC". reuters.com. Archived from the original on 30 August 2019. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  42. "China Eastern To operate Comac C919 on Shanghai-Beijing Route". ATW Online. Archived from the original on 2018-08-10. Retrieved 2018-08-09.
  43. "China Eastern abandons 787 order for 737s". Flightglobal.com. Archived from the original on 2011-10-19. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  44. "China Eastern orders 15 A330s, drops five A340s". Flightglobal.com. 5 May 2011. Archived from the original on 18 October 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  45. "China Eastern orders 15 Airbus 330s". Channel NewsAsia. Archived from the original on 2011-10-18. Retrieved 2011-10-18.
  46. "China Eastern Airlines". Airliner World: 17. October 2015.
  47. "China Eastern Airlines First Class". Business Class Consolidator Blog. 14 March 2018. Archived from the original on April 6, 2018. Retrieved March 14, 2018.
  48. "China Eastern Airbus A350 to fly Sydney-Shanghai from March 31". Australian Business Traveler. Archived from the original on January 17, 2019. Retrieved January 17, 2019.
  49. "China Eastern to introduce premium economy". TD. Archived from the original on April 10, 2019. Retrieved June 24, 2016.
  50. "Touring China Eastern's New 777-300ER Products". Travel Codex. Archived from the original on October 2, 2017. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
  51. "Welcome to Eastern Miles". Easternmiles.com. Archived from the original on 2012-04-28. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
  52. Cantle, Katie (30 September 2010). "New China Eastern cargo carrier to launch Jan. 1 from Shanghai". Atwonline.com. Archived from the original on 27 February 2011. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
  53. "ASN Aircraft accident Antonov 24RV B-3417 Shanghai-Hongqiao Airport". Aviation-safety.net. 15 August 1989. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-04-28.
  54. "Findings on airport near miss". Shanghai Daily (October 13, 2016). Shanghai Daily. Shanghai Daily. 2016-10-13. Archived from the original on October 27, 2016. Retrieved 2016-10-27.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.