Taqiya

In Islam, Taqiya or Taqiyya (Arabic: تقیة‎ taqiyyah, literally "prudence, fear")[1][2] is a precautionary dissimulation or denial of religious belief and practice in the face of persecution.[1][3][4][5]

A related term is Kitmān (lit. "action of covering, dissimulation"), which has a more specific meaning of dissimulation by silence or omission.[6][7]

This practice is emphasized in Shia Islam whereby adherents are permitted to conceal their religion when under threat of persecution or compulsion.[3][8] The practice is much less prominent in Sunni Islam, but may be permitted under certain circumstances such as threats to life.[9] There are two main aspects of taqiyya; avoiding the disclosure of association with the Imams when doing so may expose the community to danger or harm, and keeping the esoteric teachings of the Imams concealed from those who are not prepared to receive them.[10]

Taqiyya was initially practiced under duress by some of Muhammad's Companions.[11] Later, it became particularly important for Shias due to their experience as a persecuted religious minority.[8][12] According to Shia doctrine, taqiyya is permissible in situations where there is overwhelming danger of loss of life or property and where no danger to religion would occur thereby.[8] Taqiyya has also been politically legitimised, particularly among Twelver Shias, in order to maintain unity among Muslims and fraternity among the Shia clerics.[13][14]

Yarden Mariuma, sociologist at Columbia University, writes: "Taqiyya is an Islamic juridical term whose shifting meaning relates to when a Muslim is allowed, under Sharia law, to lie. A concept whose meaning has varied significantly among Islamic sects, scholars, countries, and political regimes, it nevertheless is one of the key terms used by recent anti-Muslim polemicists."[15]

Etymology and related terms

Taqiyya

The term taqiyya (Arabic: تقیة‎ taqiyyah/taqīyah) is derived from the Arabic triliteral root wāw-qāf-yā, literally denoting "caution, fear",[1] "prudence, guarding against (a danger)",[16] "carefulness, wariness".[17] In the sense of "prudence, fear" it can be used synonymously with the terms tuqa(n), tuqāt, taqwā and ittiqāʾ, derived from the same root.[6] These terms also have other meanings. For example, the term taqwa generally means "piety" (lit. "fear [of God]") in an Islamic context.[18]

Kitman

A related term is kitmān – the "action of covering, dissimulation".[6] While the terms taqiyya and kitmān may be used synonymously, kitmān refers specifically to the concealment of one's convictions by silence or omission.[7] Kitman derives from the Arabic word 'katama', which is defined as, 'to conceal, to hide'.[19] The Ibadi Muslims used kitmān to conceal their Muslim beliefs in the face of persecution by their enemies.[20]

Quranic basis

The technical meaning of the term taqiyya is thought to be derived from the Quranic reference to religious dissimulation in Sura 3:28:

Let not the believers take the unbelievers for friends rather than believers; and whoever does this, he shall have nothing of (the guardianship of) Allah, but you should guard yourselves against them, guarding carefully; and Allah makes you cautious of (retribution from) Himself; and to Allah is the eventual coming. (illā an tattaqū minhum tuqāt).[21]

The two words tattaqū ("you fear") and tuqāt "in fear" are derived from the same root as taqiya, and use of the abstract noun taqiya in reference to the general principle described in this passage is first recorded in a Qur'anic gloss by Al-Bukhari (9th century).[22]

Regarding 3:28, Ibn Kathir writes, "meaning, except those believers who in some areas or times fear for their safety from the disbelievers. In this case, such believers are allowed to show friendship to the disbelievers outwardly, but never inwardly." He quotes Muhammad's companion, Abu Ad-Darda', who said "we smile in the face of some people although our hearts curse them," and Al-Hasan who said "the Tuqyah is acceptable till the Day of Resurrection."[23]

A similar instance of the Qur'an permitting dissimulation under compulsion is found in Sura 16:106.[24][25] Sunni and Shia commentators alike observe that verse 16:106 refers to the case of 'Ammar b. Yasir, who was forced to renounce his beliefs under physical duress and torture.[7]

Shia Islam view

Twelver Shia view

The doctrine of taqiyya was developed at the time of Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 148 AH/765 AD), the sixth Imamiya Imam. It served to protect Shias when Al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph, conducted a brutal and oppressive campaign against Alids and their supporters.[26] Religious dissimulation or Taqiyya while maintaining mental reservation is considered lawful in Shi'ism "in situations where there is overwhelming danger of loss of life or property and where no danger to religion would occur thereby". Shi'is lived mostly as a minority among a frequently-hostile Sunni majority until the rise of Safavid dynasty. This condition made taqiyya doctrine important to Shias.[8]

Taqiyya holds a central place in Twelver Shia Islam. This is sometimes explained by the minority position Shias had under the political dominance of Sunni Muslims, requiring them to protect themselves through concealment and dissimulation. In Shia legal literature, there is a range of situations in which taqiyya may be used or even required. For Shia Muslims, taqiyya is to conceal their association with their faith when revealing it would result in danger. Taqiyya is done for reasons of safety. For example, a person may fear that he might be killed or harmed if he does not observe taqiyya. In this case, taqiyya is allowed. However, in some circumstances taqiyya may lead to the death of an innocent person; if so, it is not permissible; it is haraam (forbidden) to kill a human being to save one's own life.[27] Some Shias, though, advance taqiyya as a form of jihad, a sort of fighting against their adversaries.[28]

Others relate it to the esoteric nature of early Shia Islam. The knowledge (‘Ilm) given to the Imams by God had to be protected and the truth would have to be hidden before the uninitiated or their adversaries until the coming of the Twelfth Imam, when this knowledge and ultimate meaning can become known to everyone.[29][30]

Religious rulings of the Shia Imams were also influenced by taqiyya. Some of the traditions from the Imams make taqiyya a central element of Shiism: "He who has no taqiyya has no faith"; "he who forsakes taqiyya is like him who forsakes prayer"; "taqiyya is the believers shield, but for taqiyya, God would not have been worshipped". It is unclear whether those traditions only refer to taqiyya under risk or also taqiyya to conceal the esoteric doctrines of Shiism.[31] Many Shias today deny that taqiyya has any significance in their religion.[32]

Ismaili Shia view

For the Ismailis in the aftermath of the Mongol onslaught of the Alamut state in 1256 CE, the need to practice taqiyya became necessary, not only for the protection of the community itself, which was now stateless, but also for safeguarding the line of the Nizari Ismaili Imamate during this period of unrest.[33] Accordingly, the Shia Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq stated "Taqiyya is my religion and the religion of my ancestors",[27] a tradition recorded in various sources including Kitāb al-Maḥāsin of Aḥmad b. Muhammad al-Barqī and the Da‘ā’im al-Islām of al-Qāḍī al-Nu‘mān.[34] Such periods in which the Imams are concealed are known as satr, however the term may also refer to times when the Imams were not physically hidden from view but rather when the community was required to practice precautionary dissimulation. During satr the Imam could only be accessed by his community and in extremely dangerous circumstances, would be accessible only to the highest-ranking members of the Ismaili hierarchy (ḥudūd), whose function it was to transmit the teachings of the Imam to the community. Shı’a Imam Ja’far al-S.adiq is reputed to have said, “Our teaching is the truth, the truth of the truth; it is the exoteric and the esoteric, and the esoteric of the esoteric; it is the secret and the secret of a secret, a protected secret, hidden by a secret.” [10]

According to Shia scholar Muhammad Husain Javari Sabinal, Shiism would not have spread at all if not for taqiyya, referring to instances where Shia have been ruthlessly persecuted by the Sunni political elite during the Umayyad and Abbasid empires.[35] Indeed, for the Ismailis, the persistence and prosperity of the community today owes largely to the careful safeguarding of the beliefs and teachings of the Imams during the Ilkhanate, the Safawid dynasty, and other periods of persecution.

The Gupti community viewed the Aga Khan III as their spiritual leader and Imam, but concealed these beliefs in order to protect themselves. However, the Guptis used a unique form of taqiyya, they did not appear as Sunni, Sufi, or Ithna ashari, which were the more common identities to take on. Rather they identified as Hindus, and this  became a significant aspect of who they were. The name ‘Gupta’ in Sanskrit, means secret or hidden, which perfectly embodies the concealment of their faith and true identity.[10]

Alawite view

Alawites beliefs have never been confirmed by their modern religious authorities.[36] Alawites tend to conceal their beliefs (taqiyya) due to historical persecution.[37] Some tenets of the faith are secret, known only to a select few;[38][39] therefore, they have been described as a mystical sect.[40] Alawites celebrate Islamic festivals but consider the most important one to be Eid al-Ghadir.

Druze view

Because of the Druze's Ismaili Shia origin, they have also been associated with taqiyya. When the Druze were a minority being persecuted they took the appearance of another religion externally, usually the ruling religion in the area, and for the most part adhered to Muslim customs by this practice.[41]

Sunni Islam view

The basic principle of taqiyya is agreed upon by scholars, though they tend to restrict it to dealing with non-Muslims and when under compulsion (ikrāh), while Shia jurists also allow it in interactions with Muslims and in all necessary matters (ḍarūriyāt).[42] In Sunni jurisprudence protecting one's belief during extreme or exigent circumstances is called idtirar (إضطرار), which translates to "being forced" or "being coerced", and this word is not specific to concealing the faith; for example, under the jurisprudence of idtirar one is allowed to consume prohibited food (e.g. pork) to avoid starving to death.[43] Additionally, denying one's faith under duress is "only at most permitted and not under all circumstances obligatory".[9] Al-Tabari comments on sura XVI, verse 106 (Tafsir, Bulak 1323, xxiv, 122): "If any one is compelled and professes unbelief with his tongue, while his heart contradicts him, in order to escape his enemies, no blame falls on him, because God takes his servants as their hearts believe." This verse was recorded after Ammar Yasir was forced by the idolaters of Mecca to recant his faith and denounce the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Al-Tabari explains that concealing one's faith is only justified if the person is in mortal danger, and even then martyrdom is considered a noble alternative. If threatened, it would be preferable for a Muslim to migrate to a more peaceful place where a person may practice their faith openly, "since God's earth is wide."[9] In Hadith, in the Sunni commentary of Sahih al-Bukhari, known as the Fath al-Bari, it is stated that:[44]

أجمعوا على أن من أكره على الكفر واختار القتل أنه أعظم أجرا عند الله ممن اختار الرخصة ، وأما غير الكفر فإن أكره على أكل الخنزير وشرب الخمر مثلا فالفعل أولى

Which translates to:

There is a consensus that whomsoever is forced into apostasy and chooses death has a greater reward than a person who takes the license [to deny one's faith under duress], but if a person is being forced to eat pork or drink wine, then they should do that [instead of choosing death].

Al-Ghazali wrote in his „The Revival of the Religious Sciences”:

Safeguarding of a Muslim’s life is a mandatory obligation that should be observed; and that lying is permissible when the shedding of a Muslim’s blood is at stake.

Ibn Sa'd in his book „al-Tabaqat al-Kubra", narrates on the authority of Ibn Sirin:

The Prophet (S) saw 'Ammar Ibn Yasir (ra) crying, so he (S) wiped off his (ra) tears, and said: "The nonbelievers arrested you and immersed you in water until you said such and such (i.e., bad-mouthing the Prophet (S) and praising the pagan gods to escape persecution); if they come back, then say it again."

Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti in his book, „al-Ashbah Wa al-Naza’ir" affirms that:

It is acceptable (for a Muslim) to eat the meat of a dead animal at a time of great hunger (starvation to the extent that the stomach is devoid of all food); and to loosen a bite of food (for fear of choking to death) by alcohol; and to utter words of unbelief; and if one is living in an environment where evil and corruption are the pervasive norm, and permissible things (Halal) are the exception and a rarity, then one can utilize whatever is available to fulfill his needs.

Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti in his book, „al-Durr al-Manthoor Fi al-Tafsir al- Ma’athoor",[45] narrates that:

Abd Ibn Hameed, on the authority of al-Hassan, said: "al-Taqiyya is permissible until the Day of Judgment."

Examples

19th-century painting of a mass baptism of Spanish Muslims in 1500. Muslim clerics permitted them to use taqiya and become outwardly Christian, to save their lives.

When Mamun became caliph (813 AD), he tried to impose his religious views on the status of the Qur'an over all his subjects, in an ordeal called the mihna, or "inquisition". His views were disputed, and many of those who refused to follow his views were imprisoned, tortured, or threatened with the sword.[46] Some Sunni scholars chose to affirm Mamun's view that the Qur'an was created, in spite of their beliefs,[7] though a notable exception to this was scholar and theologian Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who chose to endure torture rather than to lie.[47]

Following the end of the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula in 1492, Muslims were persecuted by the Catholic Monarchs and forced to convert to Christianity or face expulsion. The principle of taqiyya became very important for Muslims during the Inquisition in 16th-century Spain, as it allowed them to convert to Christianity while remaining crypto-Muslims, practicing Islam in secret. In 1504, Ubayd Allah al-Wahrani, a Maliki mufti in Oran, issued a fatwā allowing Muslims to make extensive use of concealment in order to maintain their faith.[5][48][49] This is seen as an exceptional case, since Islamic law prohibits conversion except in cases of mortal danger, and even then requires recantation as quickly as possible,[50] and al-Wahrani's reasoning diverged from that of the majority of earlier Maliki Faqīhs such as Al-Wansharisi.[49]

Contemporary debate and conspiracy theories

In the early 21st century, taqiyya has become the subject of Islamophobic conspiracy theories. According to S. Jonathon O'Donnell, these conspiracy theories posit "the idea that Muslims have a religious duty to deceive non-Muslims if it furthers the cause" of Islam. He notes the "claim rests on a misreading of the concept of taqiyya, by which believers may conceal their faith if under threat of violence. This misreading is widely deployed in Islamophobic writings."[51]

In 2008 Raymond Ibrahim published in Jane's Islamic Affairs Analyst an article titled "Islam's doctrines of deception."[52] Ibrahim presented his own translation[53] of part of Lebanese Druze scholar Sami Makarem's monograph Al Taqiyya Fi Al Islam ("Dissimulation in Islam"). Ibrahim quoted:

"Taqiyya is of fundamental importance in Islam. Practically every Islamic sect agrees to it and practices it. We can go so far as to say that the practice of taqiyya is mainstream in Islam, and that those few sects not practicing it diverge from the mainstream ... Taqiyya is very prevalent in Islamic politics, especially in the modern era."[52][53][54]

Michael Ryan,[55] also in Jane's, characterized Ibrahim's article as "well-researched, factual in places but ... ultimately misleading".[56][54] Ibrahim responded in 2009 with "Taqiyya Revisited: A Response to the Critics", on his blog and on the Middle East Forum website.[55][57] Ibrahim was again criticised for his view on Taqiya in 2019, by Islamic scholar Usama Hasan in the Jewish Chronicle.[58]

The orientalist Stefan Wimmer explains that Taqiyya is not a tool to deceive non-Muslims and spread Islam, but instead a defensive mechanism to save one's life when it is in great danger (giving the example of the Reconquista).[59] Similar views are shown by Jakob Skovgaard-Petersen from the University of Copenhagen.[60]

See also

• Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam
• Crypto-Christianity
• Crypto-Islam
• Crypto-Judaism
• Denial of Peter
• Doctrine of mental reservation
• Islamic schools and branches
• Munafiq
• Pikuach nefesh – Exceptions

References

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2. Stewart, Devin (8 January 2014). "Dissimulation in Sunni Islam and Morisco Taqiyya". Al-Qanṭara. 34 (2): 439–490. doi:10.3989/alqantara.2013.016.
3. John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Taqiyah". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195125580. Precautionary denial of religious belief in the face of potential persecution. Stressed by Shii Muslims, who have been subject to periodic persecution by the Sunni majority.
4. Paul E. Walker (2009). "Taqīyah". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305135. Taqīyah is the precautionary dissimulation of religious belief and practice in the face of persecution.
5. Stewart, Devin. "Islam in Spain after the Reconquista". Teaching Materials. The Hagop Kevorkian Center for Near Eastern Studies at New York University. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
6. Strothmann, R.; Djebli, Moktar (2012). "Taḳiyya". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). Brill. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7341.
7. Virani, Shafique N. (2009). The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, a Search for Salvation. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 47f. ISBN 978-0-19-531173-0.
8. Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. Religious dissimulation (Taqiyya) [...] while maintaining mental reservation is considered lawful in Shi'ism in situations where there is overwhelming danger of loss of life or property and where no danger to religioun would occur thereby. [...] Living as a minority among a frequently-hostile Sunni majority, the condition of most Shi'is until the rise of the Safavid dynasty, made such a doctrine important to Shi'is
9. R. Strothmann (2000). "Takkiyya". In P. J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C. E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W. P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. 10 (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 134–135. ISBN 978-90-04-11211-7.
10. Virani, Shafique N. (23 February 2011). "Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community". The Journal of Asian Studies. 70 (1): 99–139. doi:10.1017/s0021911810002974. ISSN 0021-9118.
11. "Takiyya". Encyclopedia of Islam. Edition II. 10: 134–5. 2000.
12. R. Strothmann-[Moktar Djebli]. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "Taḳiyya", Vol. 10, p. 135. Quote: "Taḳiyya is above all of special significance for the Shī'a [...] The peculiar fate of the Shī'a, that of a suppressed minority with occasional open but not always unheroic rebellions, gave them even more than the Khāridjites occasions and examples for extreme taḳiyya and its very opposite"
13. Maréchal, Brigitte; Zemni, Sami, eds. (29 May 2013). The Dynamics of Sunni-Shia Relationships: Doctrine, Transnationalism, Intellectuals and the Media. Hurst Publishers. p. 76. ISBN 9781849042178.
14. Gerhard Böwering; Patricia Crone; Mahan Mirza (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought (illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 136. ISBN 9780691134840.
15. Mariuma, Yarden. "Taqiyya as Polemic, Law and Knowledge: Following an Islamic Legal Term through the Worlds of Islamic Scholars, Ethnographers, Polemicists and Military Men." The Muslim World 104.1–2 (2014): 89–108.
16. "The Quranic Arabic Corpus – Quran Search".
17. Muslim-Jewish encounters by Nettler
18. Lewisohn, L. "Taḳwā (a.)." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman; , Th. Bianquis; , C.E. Bosworth; , E. van Donzel; and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010. Brill Online. University of Toronto. 13 July 2010
19. "Quran Dictionary – K.M." Corpus Quran. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
20. Campo, Juan Eduardo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-2696-8.
21. Quran Surah Aal-i-Imraan ( Verse 28 )
22. http://www.holy-quran.com/
23. bin Kathir, Isma'il bin 'Umar (26 October 2002) [c. 1370]. "The Prohibition of Supporting the Disbelievers". Tafsir al-Qur'an al-Azim. Dar-us-Salaam Publishing. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011.
24. Quran 16:106 "He who disbelieves in Allah after his having believed, not he who is compelled while his heart is at rest on account of faith, but he who opens (his) breast to disbelief-- on these is the wrath of Allah, and they shall have a grievous chastisement." (Arabic original)
25. Quran Surah An-Nahl ( Verse 106 )
26. Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. The doctrine of taqiyya (religious dissimulation) was also developed at this time. It served to protect the followers of as-Sadiq at a time when al-Mansur was conducting a brutally repressive campaign against 'Alids and their supporters.
27. "AlTaqiyya, Dissimulation Part 3". Al-Islam.org. 12 November 2013.
28. Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China: religion, ethnicity, culture, and politics. Lexington Books. p. 152. ISBN 9780739103753.
29. Kohlberg, Etan (1995). Secrecy and Concealment. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 345. ISBN 9789004102354.
30. L., Clarke (2005). Todd Lawson (ed.). Reason and inspiration in Islam. I.B.Tauris. pp. 46–47. ISBN 9781850434702.
31. Kohlberg, Etan (1995). Secrecy and Concealment. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 373. ISBN 9789004102354.
32. Gleave, Robert (2000). Inevitable doubt: two theories of Shīʻī jurisprudence. Brill. p. 75. ISBN 9789004115958.
33. Virani, Shafique N. (2007). The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, a Search for Salvation. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-19-531173-0.
34. Virani, Shafique N. (2007). The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, a Search for Salvation. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-531173-0.
35. Tarikhush Shi'ah, p.230
36. 'Abd al‑Latif al‑Yunis, Mudhakkirat al‑Duktur 'Abd al‑Latif al‑Yunis, Damascus: Dar al‑'Ilm, 1992, p. 63.
37. Secretive sect of the rulers of Syria, The Telegraph, 5 August 2011
38. "Alawi Islam". Globalsecurity.org.
39. Friedman, Yaron (2010). The Nuṣayrī-ʻAlawīs. ISBN 978-9004178922.
40. Lebanon: current issues and background, John C. Rolland (2003). Nova. 1 August 2003. ISBN 9781590338711.
41. Rogan, Eugene L. (2001). The war for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948. Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–75. ISBN 9780521794763.
42. Louis Medoff, "TAQIYA i. In Shiʿism," Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2015
43. Iqbal, Javid; 'Umar, Muhammad Suhail (2000). The concept of state in Islam: a reassessment (Volume 13 of Iqbal Academy brochure series). Iqbal Academy Pakistan, original from the University of Michigan. p. 12. ISBN 978-969-416-294-2.
44. "عرض صفحة الكتاب – الحديث – موقع الإسلام".
45. v2, p176
46. Patton, Walter Melville (1897). Ahmed Ibn Hanbal and the Mihna. Leiden: Brill. pp. 79–91.
47. M. E. McMillan (2013), Fathers and Sons: The Rise and Fall of Political Dynasty in the Middle East, p. 149, ISBN 978-1-137-30811-5
48. Kamen, Henry (1998). The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 219–220. ISBN 978-0-300-07522-9.
49. Miller, Kathryn A. (2008). Guardians of Islam: Religious Authority and Muslim Communities of Late Medieval Spain. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-231-13612-9. Unlike the majority of Maliki scholars before him, he openly embraced the idea of a Mudejar jihad that was bound to the notion of inner steadfastness under persecution...
50. Kraemer, Joel L. (2010). Maimonides: The Life and World of One of Civilization's Greatest Minds. New York: Doubleday. pp. 100–101. ISBN 978-0-385-51200-8. A responsum (fatwa) by 'Ubaydallah al-Wahrani, issued in December 1504, permitted [the Moriscos] to exercise prudent dissimulation (taqiyya) by pretending to be Christians. ... The Moriscos' behavior was exceptional, however, and a departure from a general Islamic norm – Muslims may not convert to another religion unless their lives are in mortal danger, and then they must end their new status as quickly as possible
51. O'Donnell, S. Jonathon (19 December 2017). "Islamophobic conspiracism and neoliberal subjectivity: the inassimilable society". Patterns of Prejudice. Taylor & Francis. 52 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2017.1414473. ISSN 0031-322X.
52. Raymond Ibrahim (October 2008). "Islam's doctrines of deception". Retrieved 18 December 2019. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
53. Raymond Ibrahim (Winter 2010). "How Taqiyya Alters Islam's Rules of War". Middle East Quarterly. 17 (1).
54. Musaji, Sheila (2 August 2013). "Raymond Ibrahim and the Middle East Forum - updated 8/2/2013". The American Muslim (TAM). Retrieved 23 November 2020.
55. Raymond Ibrahim (26 February 2009). "Taqiyya Revisited: A Response to the Critics". Retrieved 18 December 2019.
56. Michael Ryan (12 November 2008). "Interpreting Taqiyya: Special Report". Jane's Islamic Affairs Analyst. IHS Jane's Information Group. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011.
57. Raymond Ibrahim. "Taqiyya Revisited: A Response to the Critics". Middle East Forum. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
58. Hasan, Usama (19 December 2019). "Taqiyyah Sunrise: Shining Light on Contemporary Deception". Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
59. Stefan Wimmer (23 May 2014). "Die Taqiya-Lüge (=Verstellung)?" (in German). Archived from the original on 9 April 2016.
60. Jakob Skovgaard-Petersen. "On Taqiyya and Democracy". University of Copenhagen: 8–9. Retrieved 18 December 2019.

Further reading

• Bar-Asher, Me'ir Mikha'el (1999). Scripture and Exegesis in Early Imami Shiism. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11495-5
• Cook, Michael (2003). Early Muslim Dogma: A Source-Critical Study. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54572-2
• Daftary, Farhad (1992). The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42974-9
• Goldziher, I., Das Prinzip der takijja im Islam, ZMLG 60 (1906), 213–226.
• Emadi, Hafizullah (1998). The end of taqiyya: reaffirming the religious identity of Ismailis in Shughnan, Badakhshan – political implications for Afghanistan. Middle Eastern Studies. 34(3): 103–120.
• Emadi, Hafizullah (2000). Praxis of taqiyya: perseverance of Pashaye Ismaili enclave, Nangarhar, Afghanistan. Central Asian Survey. 19(2): 253–264.
• Firro, Kais (1999). The Druzes in the Jewish State: A Brief History. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11251-0
• Gleave, Robert (2000). Inevitable Doubt. Two Theories of Shi'i Jurisprudence. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11595-1
• Kohlberg, Etan (July–September 1975). "Some Imāmī-Shīʿī Views on Taqiyya". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 95 (3): 395–402. doi:10.2307/599351. JSTOR 599351.
• Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib al- (1997). The Reliance of the Traveler, translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Amana Publications.
• Makarem, Sami (2004). Al-Taqiyya Fi Al-Islam (Dissimulation in Islam), Druze Heritage Foundation. ISBN 978-1-904850-02-1 (in Arabic)

External links

• "al-Taqiyya/Dissimulation" (Part I, Part II, Part III), A Shi'ite Encyclopedia