Tailings dam

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store byproducts of mining operations after separating the ore from the gangue. Tailings can be liquid, solid, or a slurry of fine particles, and are usually highly toxic and potentially radioactive. Solid tailings are often used as part of the structure itself.

Syncrude Tailings Dam, Fort McMurray, Alberta

Tailings dams rank among the largest engineered structures on earth. The Syncrude Mildred Lake Tailings Dyke in Alberta, Canada, is an embankment dam about 18 kilometres (11 mi) long and from 40 to 88 metres (131 to 289 ft) high. It is the largest dam structure on earth by volume, and as of 2001 it was believed to be the largest earth structure in the world by volume of fill.[1]

There are key differences between tailings dams and the more familiar hydroelectric dams. Tailings dams are designed for permanent containment, meant to "remain there forever".[2] Copper, gold, uranium and other mining operations produce varied kinds of waste, much of it toxic, which pose varied challenges for long-term containment.[3]

An estimated 3,500 active tailings impoundments stand around the world, although there is no complete inventory, and the total number is disputed. As of 2000 these structures experience known "major" failures of about 2 to 5 annually, along with 35 "minor" failures.[4] Assuming the 3,500 figure is correct, this failure rate is "more than two orders of magnitude higher than the failure rate of conventional water retention dams".[5]

Structure

Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed, and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with dirt.[6]

Wheal Jane Tailings Dam, West Cornwall, England

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the upstream, downstream and centerline, named according to the movement of the crest during raising. The specific design used is dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings, and cost. An upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.[7][8]

List of largest tailings dams

Rank	Name[9]	Country	Year completed	Structure height [m]	Structure volume[10] [10^6 m^3]	Reservoir volume [10^9 m^3]	Installed capacity [MW]	Type
1	Syncrude Tailings Dam Mildred MLSB[11]	Canada	1995	88	540[12]/720	0.35	NA	TE
2	Syncrude Tailings Dam Mildred SWSS[13]	Canada	2010	40-50	119[12]	0.25[12]	NA	TE
3	ASARCO Mission Mine Tailings Dam	United States	1973	30[14]	40.1	0 [15]	NA	ER

Type: TE - Earth; ER - Rock-fill; PG - Concrete gravity; CFRD - Concrete face rock fill

Concerns

The standard of public reporting on tailings dam incidents is poor. A large number remain completely unreported, or lack basic facts when reported. There is no comprehensive database for historic failures.[5] According to mining engineer David M Chambers of the Center for Science in Public Participation, 10,000 years is "a conservative estimate" of how long most tailings dams will need to maintain structural integrity. [16]

Failure rate

The lack of any comprehensive tailings dam database has prevented meaningful analysis, either gross comparisons (such as country to country comparisons, or tailings dam failures versus hydro dam failure rates) or technical failure analysis to help prevent future incidents. The records are very incomplete on crucial data elements: design height of dam, design footprint, construction type (upstream, downstream, center line), age, design life, construction status, ownership status, capacity, release volume, runout, etc.

An interdisciplinary research report from 2015 recompiled the official global record on tailings dam failures and major incidents and offered a framework for examining the severity and consequence of major incidents. That report shows a correlation between failure rates and the pace of copper ore production, and also establishes a relationship between the pursuit of lower grades of ore, which produces larger volumes of waste, and increasingly severe incidents.[17][18] For this reason, several programs to make tailing dams more sustainable have been set in motion in countries like Chile, where there are more than 740 spread across the country.[19]

Environmental damage

Bento Rodrigues dam disaster, 2015

The mining and processing byproducts collected in tailings dams are not part of the aerobic ecological systems, and are unstable. They may damage the environment by releasing toxic metals (arsenic and mercury among others), by acid drainage (usually by microbial action on sulfide ores), or by damaging aquatic wildlife that rely on clear water.[20]

Tailings dam failures involving significant ecological damage include:

• the Brumadinho dam disaster,[21] Brazil, January 25, 2019, where as many as 252 people are unaccounted for, and at least 134 are dead.[22][23][24] The disaster released 12 million cubic meters of iron waste leading to the Paraopeba River.

• the Bento Rodrigues dam disaster, Brazil, November 5, 2015, considered the worst environmental disaster in Brazil's history,[25][26] killed 19 people[27] when an iron ore containment dam failed and released 60 million cubic meters of iron waste.
• the Mount Polley mine disaster, British Columbia, August 4, 2014, which released 10 million cubic metres of water and 4.5 million cubic metres of metals-laden tailings.[28]
• the Ok Tedi environmental disaster in New Guinea, which destroyed the fishery of the Ok Tedi River, continuously from 1984 through 2013
• the Sotkamo metals mine, Finland, 4 November 2012, released "hundreds of thousands of cubic metres" of waste water which raised concentrations of uranium, nickel, and zinc in nearby Snow River, each to at least 10 times the harmful level.[29]
• the Ajka alumina plant accident, Hungary, October 4, 2010, which released one million cubic metres of red mud, a waste product of aluminum refining, flooding the village of Kolontár and killing the Marcal River.
• the Baia Mare cyanide spill, Romania, January 30, 2000, called the worst environmental disaster in Europe since the Chernobyl disaster[30]
• The Doñana disaster, southern Spain, 25 April 1998, which released 4-5 million cubic metres of acidic tailings containing heavy metals.
• the Church Rock uranium mill spill in New Mexico, July 16, 1979, the largest release of radioactive waste in U.S. history [31]
• three uranium tailings dams near the town of Ak-Tüz, present-day Kyrgyzstan, collapsed in a December 1964 earthquake, releasing 60% of their radioactive volume (600,000 cubic metres (21,000,000 cu ft)) into the Kichi-Kemin River and its agricultural valley[32]
• an incident on April 7, 1961 released 700,000 cubic metres (25,000,000 cu ft) of uranium mine tailings from operations of the Soviet-era Wismut organization into the Zwickauer Mulde River in the village of Oberrothenbach[33]
• the Mailuu-Suu tailings dam failure also in Soviet-era Kyrgyzstan on April 16, 1958 caused the uncontrolled release of 600,000 cubic metres (21,000,000 cu ft) of the radioactive uranium-mine tailings in to spill downstream into a portion of the densely populated Ferghana Valley[34]

Tailings ponds can also be a source of acid drainage, leading to the need for permanent monitoring and treatment of water passing through the tailings dam. For instance in 1994 the operators of the Olympic Dam mine, Western Mining Corporation, admitted that their uranium tailings containment had released of up to 5 million m3 of contaminated water into the subsoil.[35] The cost of mine cleanup has typically been 10 times that of mining industry estimates when acid drainage was involved.[36]

Casualties

The following table of the deadliest known tailings dam failures is not comprehensive, and the casualty figures are estimates.

Dam/incident	Year	Location	Fatalities	Details
1962 Huogudu(火谷都), China tailing pond failure	September 26, 1962	Huogudu (火谷都), Gejiu， Yunan Province, China	171	Few details available. A tailings pond at a tin mine operated by Yunnan Tin Group collapsed. 368M m^3 surged. One source reports 171 killed and another 92 injured; another has the date as September 26.[37][38]
Mina Plakalnitsa	May 01, 1966	Vratsa, Bulgaria	480+	A tailings dam at Plakalnitsa copper mine near the city of Vratsa failed. A total 450,000 cu m of mud and water inundated Vratsa and the nearby village of Zgorigrad, which suffered widespread damage. The official death toll is 107, but the unofficial estimate was more than 480.[39]
Certej dam failure	October 30, 1971	Certej Mine, Romania	89	A tailings dam built too tall collapsed, flooding Certeju de Sus with toxic tailings.[40]
Buffalo Creek Flood	February 26, 1972	West Virginia, United States	125	Unstable loose constructed dam created by local coal mining company, collapsed in heavy rain. 1,121 injured, 507 houses destroyed, over 4,000 left homeless.
Val di Stava dam	July 18, 1985	Tesero, Italy	268	Poor maintenance and low margin for error in design; outlet pipes failed, leading to pressure on dam and sudden collapse. Ten people were ultimately convicted of manslaughter and other charges.
Mufulira	1970	Zambia	89	A tailings reservoir breached and collapsed into the copper mine below it, killing 89 night-shift workers.[41]
Aberfan disaster	October 21, 1966	Wales	144	The collapse and landslide of a spoil tip accumulated above the mining town on geologically unstable ground killed 28 adults and 116 children (not an engineered structure)
Hpakant jade mine disaster	October 25, 2015	Myanmar	113	A slag heap reportedly used by multiple operators in this jade-mining region became unstable and flooded into nearby residences (not an engineered structure)[42]
El Cobre landslide	March 28, 1965	Chile	300	Shaking from a magnitude 7.4 earthquake caused the failure of two tailings dams at the El Soldado copper mine. The resulting flow destroyed the town of El Cobre.
Merriespruit Tailings Dam Failure	February 22, 1994	Virginia, Free State, South Africa	17	Merriespruit tailings dam overtopped in heavy rains. The flow of an estimated 600,000 m3 (1.2 Million tonnes) of tailings reached the town of Merriespruit 2 kilometers away. With the seventeen fatal casualties, dozens of homes were engulfed.[43]
Taoshi landslide	September 08, 2008	Linfen, Shanxi Province, China	254+	Iron mine tailings, formerly administered by the state and then put into private hands, collapsed into a village at 8 a.m.[44]
Bento Rodrigues dam disaster	November 05, 2015	Mariana, Minas Gerais, Brazil	19	A tailings dam at an iron ore mine jointly owned by Vale S.A. and BHP and suffered a catastrophic failure releasing around 60 million cubic meters of iron waste into the Doce River which reached the Atlantic Ocean.
Brumadinho dam disaster	January 25, 2019	Brumadinho, Minas Gerais, Brazil	259+[45]	A tailings dam at an iron ore mine operated by Vale S.A. suffered a catastrophic failure.[46]

Largest failures

The following list focuses on the largest tailings dam failures:

Name	Released volume [10^3 m^3]	Date of failure	Country	Environmental consequences	Reservoir volume [10^3 m^3]	Dam type	Notes
Padcal No. 2	80,000[47] 32,000[48]	1992 January 2	Philippines	Damaged "large tracts of prime agricultural land"; mine paid penalties to provincial treasury of Pangasinan.[49]	80,000[50]		Copper mine. Dam wall collapsed.[51]
Mariana dam disaster (Bento Rodrigues, Samarco)[52]	60,000 32,000[51]	2015 November 5	Brazil	Significant contamination of Rio Doce and Atlantic Ocean.	55,000[51]		Iron ore tailings[53] Flávio Fonseca de Carmo, Luciana Hiromi et. al say 43x10^6 m^3 of tailings released, which was 80% of the stored volume.[48]
Brumadinho dam disaster	12,000	2019 January 25	Brazil	Metals in tailings to be incorporated into rivers' soil.		Earth	Iron ore tailings.
Ajka alumina plant accident	1000	2010 October 4	Hungary	The waste extinguished all life in the Marcal river, alkaline mud reached the Danube			Red mud
Sipalay	30,000[54][55]	1982 Nov. 8[56]	Philippines	"Widespread inundation of agricultural land up to 1.5 m high"	37,000[51]		Dam failure, due to slippage of foundation[57]
Mount Polley	15,000[58] 23,600[51]	2014 August 4	Canada		74,000[59]		4.5 Mm^3 water, 10 Mm^3 metals-laden tailings, plus interstitial water in tailings.
American Cyanamid	11,400[60]	1962	U.S.A.	Acidic water flowed into a wetland called Hooker's Prairie. It was contained there and limed before discharge into South Prong of Alafia River.			Phosphate, Florida.[51]
Padcal No. 3	5,000-10,000	2012 August 3	Philippines	Balog and Agno Rivers heavily polluted.	250,000[61] 102,000[51]		Copper mine[51]
Pinchi Lake	6,000-8,000	2004 Nov. 30	Canada	Tlatzen First Nation alleges mercury has destroyed fishery in the lake.			Mercury mine waste containment dam collapses.[62][51]
Payne Creek Mine	6,800	1994 Oct 2	U.S.A.				Water from a clay settling pond. Majority of release contained on adjacent mining area; 500,000 m^3 escaped into a creek[57]
Doñana disaster	4,500 6,800[51]	1998 April 25	Spain		15,000[51]		Acidic tailings containing heavy metals
Omai mine	4,200	1995 August 19	Guyana		5,250[51]		Gold mine. Tailings release contained cyanide.
Kingston power plant	4,100	2008 Dec. 22	U.S.A.	Heavy metals; large fish kill; town inundated;			Fly ash slurry from a coal-fired power plant.
Balka Cuficheva	3,500	1981 January 20	Soviet Union		27,000[51]		Iron.[57]
Los Cedros	1,500-3,000[63]	1937 May 27	Mexico	> 300 human fatalities	25,000 (estimate)[64]		Silver and gold mine.[63]
Quinette, Maemot	2,500[51]	1985	Canada	River valley filled with waste for 2.5 km.[51]			Coal mine.
Rio Pomba Cataguases	2,000	2007 10 January	Brazil				Bauxite (Aluminum) mine[51]
Tyrone, New Mexico	2,000	1980 Oct. 13	U.S.A.	Tailings flow 8 km downstream and inundate farmland.			Copper mine.[57]
Hopewell Mine	1,900	1994 Nov 19	U.S.A.	Spill into wetlands and Alafia River			Water from a clay settling pond[57]
Merriespruit	690[65]	1994 February 22	South Africa	Slurry travelled 2 km, covering about ​^1⁄2 km^2. 17 fatalities.	7,040[51]		Gold mine.[66]
2008 Shanxi mudslide		2008	China

See also

• Oil sands tailings ponds (Canada)

References

1. Morgenstern, Norbert R. (19–20 September 2001). "Geotechnics and Mine Waste Management – Update" (PDF). Swedish Mining Association, Natur Vards Verket, European Commission. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
2. "Tailings Dams: Where Mining Waste is Stored Forever". FRONTLINE. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
3. Culbert, Lori (24 November 2001). "Story of a shattered life: A single childhood incident pushed Dawn Crey into a downward spiral - Vancouver Sun". Retrieved 28 January 2019.
4. Martin, T.E.; Davies, M.P. "Trends in the stewardship of tailings dams" (PDF). www.infomine.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 November 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
5. Azam, Shahad; Li, Qiren (December 2010). "Tailings Dam Failures: A Review of the Last One Hundred Years" (PDF). www.infomine.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
6. Blight, Geoffrey E. (1998). "Construction of Tailings Dams". Case studies on tailings management. Paris, France: International Council on Metals and the Environment. pp. 9–10. ISBN 1-895720-29-X. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
7. "Properties of Tailings Dams" (PDF). NBK Institute of Mining Engineering. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2011. Retrieved 10 August 2011.http://mining.ubc.ca/files/2013/03/Dirk-van-Zyl.pdf
8. Raj K. Singhal, ed. (2000). Environmental issues and management of waste in energy and mineral production: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Environmental Issues and Management of Waste in Energy and Mineral Production: SWEMP 2000; Calgary, Alberta, Canada, May 30 – June 2, 2000. Rotterdam: Balkema. pp. 257–260. ISBN 90-5809-085-X. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
9. Talk:List of largest dams in the world#Phantom Dams
10. Talk:List of largest dams in the world#Structure Volume
11. D. Nicol (1994) "The Syncrude Mildred Lake Tailings Dyke Redesign", 18th Int. Congr. Large Dams.
12. Estimate based on height, dimensions from Google Earth and, where available, cross section. Accuracy ±15%
13. "Microsoft Word - Baseline Report on Fluid Deposits revE" (PDF). Retrieved 16 February 2011.
14. Estimate based on structure volume and dimensions from Google Earth
15. Zero reservoir size because full of tailings
16. David M Chambers, "Long Term Risk of Releasing Potentially Acid Producing Waste Due to Tailings Dam Failure". Center for Science in Public Participation. Page 3 of 12. CSP2.org
17. Lindsay Newland Bowker and David M Chambers, 2015. csp2.org
18. http://www.csp2.org/tailings-dam-failures-1915-2014
19. Honrubia, Mario (3 April 2019). "3 Ways of Making Mine Tailing Dams more Sustainable". Ennomotive. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
20. Franks, DM, Boger, DV, Côte, CM, Mulligan, DR. 2011. Sustainable Development Principles for the Disposal of Mining and Mineral Processing Wastes. Resources Policy. Vol. 36. No. 2. pp 114-122
21. Schvartsman, Fabio (25 January 2019). "Announcement about Brumadinho breach dam" (in Portuguese). Vale. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
22. "Firefighters confirm 40 dead, Vale announces list of non-contact employees". Isto é. 26 January 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
23. Schipani, Andres (26 January 2019). "Vale mining dam failure leaves 7 dead in Brazil". Financial Times. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
24. Broadle, Anthony (26 January 2019). "Vale confirms tailings dam break at Feijao mine, echoing 2015 Samarco disaster". The Australian Financial Review. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
25. "Boechat: Mariana é a maior tragédia ambiental do Brasil". TV UOL. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
26. Joao. "É a maior tragédia ambiental do Brasil. Mas tem solução". www.ihu.unisinos.br. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
27. "Brazil dam burst: Six months on, the marks left by sea of sludge". BBC. 5 May 2016.
28. CBC News, August 2014. cbc.ca
29. Mineral Policy Institute, August 2014, Chronology of Major Tailings Dam Failures
30. "Death of a river", BBC, February 15, 2000
31. Quinones, Manuel (December 13, 2011). "URANIUM: As Cold War abuses linger, Navajo Nation faces new mining push". www.eenews.net. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
32. I. Torgoev, A.T. Jakubick, quoted in Merkel, Broder; Schipek, Mandy, eds. (6 October 2011). The New Uranium Mining Boom: Challenge and lessons learned. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 232. ISBN 9783642221224. Retrieved 3 January 2018.
33. Schramm, Manuel. "Uranium Mining and the Environment in East and West Germany," (PDF). Rachel Carson Center Perspectives. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
34. Watson, Ivan (5 February 2008). "Kyrgyz Town Lives with Radioactive Soviet Legacy". National Public Radio. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
35. "Environmental Aspects of Uranium Mining: WNA - World Nuclear Association". www.world-nuclear.org. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
36. Jared Diamond (2005). Collapse. Penguin., page 452-458
37. The present situation and prospects for safety online-monitoring system of tailings pond (sic), by ZHOU Hanmin, YUAN Ziqing, SU Jun, YANG Xiaocong and ZHANG Da1, paper presented for the 3rd International Conference on Mechatronics, Robotics and Automation (ICMRA 2015)
38. "Introduction tailings dam-Alibaba Trade Forums". resources.alibaba.com. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
39. "Трагедията в село Згориград (община Враца, България)". Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
40. "Certej 1971, tragedia uitată a 89 de vieţi îngropate sub 300 de mii de metri cubi de nămol". Adevărul. 31 August 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
41. "Tailings.info ▪ Mufulira mine tailings breach, Zambia". www.tailings.info. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
42. "Nearly 100 dead in Myanmar jade mine collapse". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
43. "Tailings.info ▪ Merriespruit tailings dam failure". www.tailings.info. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
44. AsiaNews.it. "Taoshi landslide: hundreds dead, mine owner and government accused". www.asianews.it. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
45. https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2020/01/promotoria-de-mg-denuncia-ex-presidente-da-vale-e-15-pessoas-por-homicidio-doloso-em-brumadinho.shtml
46. "Brumadinho dam collapse in Brazil: Vale mine chief resigns". Retrieved 3 March 2019.
47. AGHAM – Advocates of Science and Technology for the People, Center for Environmental Concerns (CEC), and Kalikasan People's Network for the Environment (Kalikasan-PNE) "Environmental Investigation Mission on the Impacts of the Philex Mining Corporation (PMC) Mine Tailings Pond 3 Failure TECHNICAL REPORT" ,  2013. Page 2 (7/28). Accessed June 2018.
    Harvey Wood, 2012. Disasters and Minewater. IWA Publishing. Page 36. Accessed via EbscoHost e-book publisher.
    Wise Uranium, 2018. "Chronology of Major Tailings Dam Failures"   gives outflow as 80 million tonnes.
48. Flávio Fonseca de Carmo, Luciana Hiromi, and others, 2017. "Fundão tailings dam failures: the environment tragedy of the largest technological disaster of Brazilian mining in global context"   Perspectives in Ecology and ConservationVolume 15, Issue 3, July–September 2017, Pages 145-151
49. Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines and others, September 2012. "The Philex Mine Tailings Spill Of 2012: An Independent Fact Finding Mission Report" , p 18/26. Accessed July 2018.
50. International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), 2001 Tailings Dams Risk of Dangerous Occurrences   P 95. Gives storage and released amounts both as 80 million tonnes. Accessed July 2018.
51. Center for Science in Public Participation, "Tailings Dam Failures, 1915-2016"   Accessed June 2018.
52. United Nations, Mine Tailings Storage: Safety Is No Accident "Report Summary"   Accessed June 2018.
53. United Nations. No date. "Mine Tailings Storage: Safety Is No Accident", pp 6-7. amazonaws.com
54. Wise Uranium, "Chronology of Major Tailings Dam Failures"   (2018) gives release size as 28 million tonnes. Thus the volume would be 28 million cubic metres if it was all water, and more if the release included tailings solids, which is likely.
55. Source gives amount as 28 million tonnes. See also the CSP2 table of tailings dam failures ,   lines 375-6, which gives a conversion factor of 1.6 (volume/mass).
56. Bulatlat.com
57. Mineral Policy Institute Chronology of major tailings dam failures
58. Jennni Sheppard, "Imperial Metals was warned about height of wastewater in tailings pond most recently in May" CBC News, August 5, 2014
59. Center for Science in Public Participation, "Tailings Dam Failures, 1915-2016"
    Adam, NASA Earth Observatory, 17 August 2014."Dam Breach at Mount Polley Mine in British Columbia"   Both articles accessed June 2018.
60. Hi Tech Solutions, 2000. "Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Neutralizing Accidental Spills of Acidic Waste From Holding Ponds"  , p. 5. Accessed June 2018.
61. Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines and others, September 2012. "The Philex Mine Tailings Spill Of 2012: An Independent Fact Finding Mission Report" , p 18/26, cites Philippines DENR as estimating the stored tailings mass as 163 million tonnes. Specific gravity of tailings is typically about 1.6 according to Centre for Science in Public Participation, "Tailings Dam Failures, 1915-2016", op. cit. Accessed July 2018.
62. Mining Watch "We Want to Make Cominco Responsible: Tlatzen Nation"
63. J L Macias, P Corona-Chavez, and others, 2015. "The 27 May 1937 catastrophic flow failure of gold tailings at Tlalpjahua, Michoacán, Mexico", Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 15, pp 1069-1085. Abstract Full pdf   The document is open source. Retrieved June 2018.
64. The source gives an estimate of 14.7 million tons. Multiplying this by a typical specific gravity for tailings of 1.6, as suggestd by the Center for Science in Public Participation, "Tailings Dam Failures, 1915-2016" (op. cit.) gives approximately 25 million cubic metres of volume.
65. May have been more like 2,000 Mm³. See ICOLD 2001, op cit.
66. Michael P Davies, "Tailings Impoundment Failures: Are Geotechnical Engineers Listening?" Geotechnical News, September 2002. http://www.pebblescience.org/pdfs/Dam_failuresDavies2002.pdf

Further reading

• a chronology of major tailings dam failures
• Mineral Policy Institute tailings dam failure list