Sun–Liu territorial dispute

The Sun–Liu territorial dispute was a military conflict between the warlords Sun Quan and Liu Bei in 215 during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. While Sun Quan and Liu Bei had initially formed an alliance in 208 against their common rival Cao Cao, both sides got into a territorial dispute over the territories in southern Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) in the early 210s. The dispute ended when both sides agreed to divide the territories along the Xiang River between their respective domains: Sun Quan took the lands east of the river while Liu Bei kept those west of the river. Despite a peaceful settlement to the territorial dispute, Sun Quan ultimately sent his forces to attack Liu Bei's territories in an invasion in 219 and succeeded in capturing all of them.

Sun–Liu territorial dispute
Part of the wars at the end of the Han dynasty
Date c. July – August 215[lower-alpha 1] Location Hubei and Hunan, China Result Peaceful settlement Territorial changes Division of territories between Sun Quan and Liu Bei's domains along the Xiang River
Belligerents
Sun Quan	Liu Bei
Commanders and leaders
Sun Quan Lu Su Lü Meng	Liu Bei Guan Yu
Strength
at least 10,000	≈30,000 (Guan Yu's claim)

Background

In the winter of 208, the warlords Liu Bei and Sun Quan formed an alliance to counter another warlord Cao Cao and defeated him at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs. Shortly after the Battle of Red Cliffs, the allied forces followed up with the Battle of Jiangling and succeeded in capturing Jiangling County and the rest of Nan Commandery (南郡; around present-day Jingzhou, Hubei) from Cao Cao's forces.[2]

After the Battle of Jiangling, Nan Commandery remained under the control of Sun Quan, who appointed his general Zhou Yu as the commandery's administrator. The commandery's administrative centre was at Jiangling County and its jurisdiction included the counties of Xiajun (下雋; northwest of present-day Tongcheng County, Hubei), Hanchang (漢昌; southeast of present-day Pingjiang County, Hunan), Liuyang and Zhouling (州陵; northeast of present-day Honghu, Hubei).[3]

In the meantime, Liu Bei nominated Liu Qi, the elder son of Jing Province's former governor Liu Biao, to succeed his father as the new governor. At the same time, he led his forces to attack and conquer the four commanderies further south in Jing Province: Wuling (武陵; around present-day Changde, Hunan), Changsha, Guiyang (桂陽; around present-day Chenzhou, Hunan) and Lingling (零陵; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan).[2]

After Liu Qi died in late 209, Sun Quan nominated Liu Bei to replace Liu Qi as the new governor of Jing Province. Liu Bei then made Gong'an County the administrative centre of his territories. To further strengthen the Sun–Liu alliance, he also married Sun Quan's younger sister, Lady Sun.[2]

Sun Quan "lending" Jing Province to Liu Bei

In 210, Liu Bei travelled to Jing (京; present-day Zhenjiang, Jiangsu) to meet Sun Quan and request to govern Nan Commandery. During this time, Zhou Yu secretly wrote to Sun Quan, urging his lord to lure Liu Bei to Wu Commandery (around present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu), distract him with luxuries and women, and keep him separated from his generals Guan Yu and Zhang Fei.[4] Sun Quan, however, rejected Zhou Yu's idea because he considered Cao Cao to be a much greater threat to him than Liu Bei, so it would be better for him to maintain his alliance with Liu Bei.[5]

Lu Su, another of Sun Quan's generals, advised his lord to "lend" Nan Commandery to Liu Bei so as to strengthen the Sun–Liu alliance against Cao Cao.[6] He pointed out that since they had just recently occupied Nan Commandery, they would not be able to defend it well if Cao Cao's forces attacked, so it would be better to "lend" it to Liu Bei and let him serve as a buffer against Cao Cao. Sun Quan agreed with Lu Su and "lent" Nan Commandery to Liu Bei.[7][8]

Zhou Yu died later that year in Baqiu (巴丘; present-day Yueyang, Hunan) while preparing for a campaign to conquer Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), also known as Shu (蜀), from its governor Liu Zhang.[9] Before his death, he wrote to Sun Quan to recommend Lu Su to succeed him as the commander of Sun Quan's forces in Jing Province. Sun Quan approved and put Lu Su in charge of the troops and territories which used to be led and governed by Zhou Yu.[8]

Between 212 and 214, Liu Bei embarked on a campaign to seize control of Yi Province from Liu Zhang. He left his general Guan Yu behind to guard his territories in Jing Province during his absence.[10]

The conflict

Changsha

Lingling

Guiyang

Yiyang

Lukou

Gong'an

Map of present-day Hunan showing key locations of the conflict: Changsha, Lingling, Guiyang, Yiyang, Lukou and Gong'an.

At the time, tensions were rising at the Sun–Liu border in Jing Province as both sides became more suspicious and wary of each other. Around July 215, Sun Quan asked Liu Bei to "return" three commanderies in southern Jing Province – Changsha, Lingling (零陵; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan) and Guiyang (桂陽; around present-day Chenzhou, Hunan) – since the latter already had a new base in Yi Province. When Liu Bei refused, Sun Quan decided to seize the three commanderies by force. He stationed himself at Lukou (陸口; at Lushui Lake near present-day Chibi, Hubei) while ordering Lü Meng, Ling Tong and Lü Dai[11] to lead troops to attack the three commanderies, and Lu Su to lead 10,000 troops to Yiyang to block Guan Yu.[12][1]

Lü Meng capturing the three commanderies

Lü Meng wrote to the administrators of the three commanderies to ask them to submit to Sun Quan. All of them agreed except Lingling's administrator, Hao Pu (郝普). In the meantime, upon learning of Sun Quan's advances, Liu Bei returned from Yi Province to Gong'an County and ordered Guan Yu to lead troops to stop Lü Meng and take back the three commanderies. After hearing that Guan Yu and his army was heading their way, Sun Quan sent an urgent order to Lü Meng, ordering him to give up on Lingling and lead his troops to Yiyang to assist Lu Su.[13][1]

When Lü Meng pacified Changsha, he passed by Ling County (酃縣; east of present-day Hengyang, Hunan) and met Deng Xuanzhi (鄧玄之), an old friend of Hao Pu. He planned to use Deng Xuanzhi to trick Hao Pu into surrendering. That night, Lü Meng summoned all his officers and gave them instructions on how to attack Lingling the following morning, without telling them that Sun Quan had given orders for them to give up on Lingling and move to Yiyang. He lied to Deng Xuanzhi that Liu Bei was besieged in Hanzhong by Cao Cao's general Xiahou Yuan and that Guan Yu was occupied in a battle at Nan Commandery. He then asked Deng Xuanzhi to help him persuade Hao Pu to give up on Lingling. Deng Xuanzhi went to see Hao Pu later and conveyed Lü Meng's message. Hao Pu became afraid when he heard that he had been isolated, so he agreed to surrender and asked Deng Xuanzhi to lead him to Lü Meng. When Lü Meng met Hao Pu, he revealed the truth, clapped his hands and laughed. Hao Pu became wrecked with guilt when he learnt that both Liu Bei and Guan Yu were actually free to reinforce Lingling but it was too late. Lü Meng left Sun He (孫河) behind to guard the three commanderies while he headed towards Yiyang per Sun Quan's order.[14][1]

Standoff at Yiyang between Guan Yu and Gan Ning

In the meantime, Guan Yu claimed to be leading an army of 30,000. He selected 5,000 of his best troops, led them to the upstream shallows located some 10 li away from Yiyang, and planned to cross the shallows at night. Lu Su held a discussion with his subordinates on how to deal with Guan Yu. At the time, Gan Ning, who had only 300 men under him, told Lu Su: "If you give me another 500 troops, I will go to confront Guan Yu. I assure you that Guan Yu will not dare to cross the waters when he hears of my approach. But if he does, I will capture him." Lu Su then chose 1,000 troops and put them under Gan Ning's command. Gan Ning headed towards Guan Yu's position at night. As Gan Ning expected, Guan Yu did not cross the shallows and instead ordered his men to make camp there. That place was thus named 'Guan Yu's Shallows' (關羽瀨).[15]

Negotiations between Lu Su and Guan Yu

Lu Su invited Guan Yu to attend a meeting to discuss the dispute. During the negotiations, both sides stationed their soldiers more than 100 paces away from the meeting area, while the officers present at the talks were each armed with nothing more than a sword or blade weapon. This event is hence sometimes referred to as "attending a meeting armed with only a sword" (單刀赴會).[16]

Lu Su told Guan Yu:

"Initially, my lord "lent" these lands to your lord because he suffered defeats and didn't have a base at that time. However, now that he has obtained Yi Province, he doesn't want to "return" the lands. When we ask for only three commanderies, you still refuse..."[17]

Before Lu Su could finish what he was saying, an unnamed person interrupted him: "Whoever has the ability to govern the land shall have control over it. Isn't it so?" Lu Su angrily rebuked that person in a firm and stern tone. Guan Yu drew his sword, stood up and said: "This is a state-level problem. We can't hope to understand it." He left after that.[18]

Wei Zhao's Book of Wu (吳書) provided more details on the meeting. Before the talks started, Lu Su's subordinates feared that Guan Yu would try to harm Lu Su, so they advised Lu Su against attending the meeting. However, Lu Su replied: "It's better for us to settle this dispute in a peaceful manner. Liu Bei may have acted against our lord's interests, but we haven't agreed on who is right and who is wrong. Do you think Guan Yu will dare to do something as rash as killing me at this point in time?"[19]

Lu Su then met Guan Yu, who told him:

"My lord was actively involved in the Battle of Red Cliffs and he didn't rest well during that time. He relied on his own strength to overcome the enemy. How can he not gain even a single piece of land despite his efforts? And now you come to claim the lands from him?"[20]

Lu Su replied:

"No. When I first met your lord at Changban, his men were too few to form even a division and his situation then was very bad as compared to now. My lord considered that your lord didn't have a place to settle down, so he offered your lord protection and shelter. However, your lord wasn't honest with us and he acted on his own. That was why our relations soured. Now, after taking over Yi Province, he still wants to keep Jing Province for himself? This isn't what a reasonable man would do, much less a leader of men! I heard that those who forsake moral principles for the purpose of satisfying their personal greed will meet their doom. My son holds important appointments. He previously lacked a good sense of judgment when he handled issues, but after receiving some moral education, he became more responsible and started striving harder. If what one does is morally right, why should he worry that he won't become successful?"[21]

Guan Yu did not respond to what Lu Su said.[22]

Peaceful settlement

Although the talks between Lu Su and Guan Yu were inconclusive, the Sun–Liu territorial dispute ultimately ended by the end of August 215 when Liu Bei decided to give in upon learning that his base in Yi Province was potentially under threat. This was because Cao Cao was attacking Hanzhong Commandery, then under the control of the warlord Zhang Lu. As Hanzhong was the "northern gateway" of Yi Province, if Cao Cao succeeded in seizing Hanzhong from Zhang Lu, he would be able to launch attacks on Yi Province from Hanzhong. Liu Bei thus decided that it was better for him to make peace with Sun Quan at the moment, and shift his focus towards countering Cao Cao. Liu Bei and Sun Quan then withdrew their forces after agreeing to divide the territories in southern Jing Province between their respective domains along the Xiang River: Liu Bei would keep Nan, Lingling and Wuling commanderies in the west, while Sun Quan would take Changsha, Jiangxia and Guiyang commanderies in the east.[23][1]

Aftermath

Although the Sun–Liu territorial dispute of 215 ended in a peace settlement, Sun Quan did not give up his goal of acquiring all of Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. In the winter of 219–220, when Guan Yu was away at the Battle of Fancheng against Cao Cao's forces in northern Jing Province, Sun Quan ordered Lü Meng to lead a stealth invasion of Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. Lü Meng and his army succeeded in their mission and conquered all of Liu Bei's territories without Guan Yu knowing. By the time Guan Yu returned from Fancheng, it was already too late. Guan Yu was subsequently captured in an ambush and executed by Sun Quan's forces after refusing to surrender.

"Guan Yu attending a meeting armed with only a blade", portrait at the Long Corridor of the Summer Palace in Beijing

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

In Chapter 66 of the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the meeting between Guan Yu and Lu Su is dramatised into an event known as "Guan Yunchang (Guan Yu) attending a meeting armed with only a blade" (關雲長單刀赴會; 关云长单刀赴会; Guān Yúncháng dān dāo fù huì). In the novel, the meeting is actually a mask for an attempt by Lu Su and his subordinates to force Guan Yu to hand over Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province to Sun Quan's side. Their plan is as follows: Lu Su will pretend to invite Guan Yu to attend a meeting and demand that he "return" the territories. Lü Meng, Gan Ning and the others will lead their men to hide near the meeting area. If Guan Yu refuses to hand over the territories, Lu Su will give a signal for them to immediately come out of hiding and assassinate Guan Yu. Guan Yu knows that it is a trap but he still arms himself with only his Green Dragon Crescent Blade and attends the meeting. After a short exchange with Lu Su over a few drinks, Guan Yu senses the hidden danger so he pretends to be drunk, grabs Lu Su and holds him hostage while carefully retreating back to his boat. He releases Lu Su after boarding his boat and sails back to his base safely.[24]

Notes

1. The Zizhi Tongjian recorded that this conflict took place in the 6th month of the 20th year of the Jian'an era in the reign of Emperor Xian of Han.[1] This month corresponds to 14 July to 12 August 215 in the Gregorian calendar.

References

1. Sima (1084), vol. 67. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSima1084 (help)
2. Sima (1084), vol. 65. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSima1084 (help)
3. (權拜瑜偏將軍，領南郡太守。以下雋、漢昌、瀏陽、州陵為奉邑，屯據江陵。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
4. (... 瑜上疏曰：「劉備以梟雄之姿，而有關羽、張飛熊虎之將，必非乆屈為人用者。愚謂大計宜徙備置吳，盛為築宮室，多其美女玩好，以娛其耳目，分此二人，各置一方，使如瑜者得挾與攻戰，大事可定也。今猥割土地以資業之，聚此三人，俱在疆場，恐蛟龍得雲雨，終非池中物也。」) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
5. (權以曹公在北方，當廣擥英雄，又恐備難卒制，故不納。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
6. (後備詣京見權，求都督荊州，惟肅勸權借之，共拒曹公。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
7. (漢晉春秋曰：呂範勸留備，肅曰：「不可。將軍雖神武命世，然曹公威力實重，初臨荊州，恩信未洽，宜以借備，使撫安之。多操之敵，而自為樹黨，計之上也。」權即從之。) Han Jin Chunqiu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 54.
8. Sima (1084), vol. 66. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSima1084 (help)
9. (瑜還江陵，為行裝，而道於巴丘病卒，時年三十六。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
10. Sima (1084), vols. 66–67. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFSima1084 (help)
11. (建安二十年，督孫茂等十將從取長沙三郡。) Sanguozhi vol. 60.
12. (及羽與肅鄰界，數生狐疑，疆埸紛錯，肅常以歡好撫之。備旣定益州，權求長沙、零、桂，備不承旨，權遣呂蒙率衆進取。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
13. (蒙移書二郡，望風歸服，惟零陵太守郝普城守不降。而備自蜀親至公安，遣羽爭三郡。權時住陸口，使魯肅將萬人屯益陽拒羽，而飛書召蒙，使捨零陵，急還助肅。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
14. (初，蒙旣定長沙，當之零陵，過酃，載南陽鄧玄之，玄之者郝普之舊也，欲令誘普。及被書當還，蒙祕之，夜召諸將，授以方略，晨當攻城，顧謂玄之曰：「郝子太聞世間有忠義事，亦欲為之，而不知時也。左將軍在漢中，為夏侯淵所圍。關羽在南郡，今至尊身自臨之。近者破樊本屯，救酃，逆為孫規所破。此皆目前之事，君所親見也。彼方首尾倒縣，救死不給，豈有餘力復營此哉？今吾士卒精銳，人思致命，至尊遣兵，相繼於道。今予以旦夕之命，待不可望之救，猶牛蹄中魚，兾賴江漢，其不可恃亦明矣。若子太必能一士卒之心，保孤城之守，尚能稽延旦夕，以待所歸者，可也。今吾計力度慮，而以攻此，曾不移日，而城必破，城破之後，身死何益於事，而令百歲老母戴白受誅，豈不痛哉？度此家不得外問，謂援可恃，故至於此耳。君可見之，為陳禍福。」玄之見普，具宣蒙意，普懼而聽之。玄之先出報蒙，普尋後當至。蒙豫勑四將，各選百人，普出，便入守城門。須臾普出，蒙迎執其手，與俱下船。語畢，出書示之，因拊手大笑，普見書，知備在公安，而羽在益陽，慙恨入地。蒙留孫河委以後事。即日引軍赴益陽。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
15. (羽號有三萬人，自擇選銳士五千人，投縣上流十餘里淺瀨，云欲夜涉渡。肅與諸將議。寧時有三百兵，乃曰：「可復以五百人益吾，吾往對之，保羽聞吾欬唾，不敢涉水，涉水即是吾禽。」肅便選千兵益寧，寧乃夜往。羽聞之，住不渡，而結柴營，今遂名此處為關羽瀨。) Sanguozhi vol. 55.
16. (肅住益陽，與羽相拒。肅邀羽相見，各駐兵馬百步上，但請將軍單刀俱會。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
17. (肅因責數羽曰：「國家區區本以土地借卿家者，卿家軍敗遠來，無以為資故也。今已得益州，旣無奉還之意，但求三郡，又不從命。」) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
18. (語未究竟，坐有一人曰：「夫土地者，惟德所在耳，何常之有！」肅厲聲呵之，辭色甚切。羽操刀起謂曰：「此自國家事，是人何知！」目使之去。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
19. (吳書曰：肅欲與羽會語，諸將疑恐有變，議不可往。肅曰：「今日之事，宜相開譬。劉備負國，是非未決，羽亦何敢重欲干命！」) Wu Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 54.
20. (乃自就羽。羽曰：「烏林之役，左將軍身在行間，寢不脫介，自力破魏，豈得徒勞，無一塊壤，而足下來欲收地邪？」) Wu Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 54.
21. (肅曰：「不然。始與豫州觀於長阪，豫州之衆不當一校，計窮慮極，志勢摧弱，圖欲遠竄，望不及此。主上矜愍豫州之身無有處所，不愛土地士人之力，使有所庇廕以濟其患，而豫州私獨飾情，愆德隳好。今已藉手於西州矣，又欲翦并荊州之土，斯蓋凡夫所不忍行，而況整領人物之主乎！肅聞貪而棄義，必為禍階。吾子屬當重任，曾不能明道處分，以義輔時，而負恃弱衆以圖力爭，師曲為老，將何獲濟？」) Wu Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 54.
22. (羽無以荅。) Wu Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 54.
23. (備遂割湘水為界，於是罷軍。) Sanguozhi vol. 54.
24. Sanguo Yanyi ch. 66.

• Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
• de Crespigny, Rafe (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms 23-220 AD. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004156050.
• Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
• Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
• Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian.