Proto-Kra language
Proto-Kra is the reconstructed ancestor of the Kra languages. It was reconstructed in 2000 by Weera Ostapirat in his Ph.D. dissertation.
Proto-Kra | |
---|---|
Reconstruction of | Kra languages |
Reconstructed ancestor |
Lower-level reconstructions
Ostapirat (2000) provided preliminary phonological reconstructions for several lower-level groupings before attempting a reconstruction of Proto-Kra.
- Proto-Kra
- Proto-South-Western Kra
- Proto-Western Kra (Gelao, Lachi)
- Proto-Southern Kra (Laha)
- Proto-Central-East Kra
- Proto-Central Kra (Paha)
- Proto-Eastern Kra (Buyang, Qabiao)
- Proto-South-Western Kra
Phonology
Consonants
Proto-Kra has a total of 32 consonants, seven of which (marked in green) can occur as syllable finals (Ostapirat 2000:224, 236).
Labial | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unvoiced Stop | p | t | ʈ | c | k | ʔ | ||||||||
Voiced Stop | b | d | ɖ | ɟ | ɡ | |||||||||
Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ɲ | ŋ | |||||||||
Unvoiced Affricate | ts | tʃ | ʈʂ | |||||||||||
Voiced Affricate | dz | dʒ | ɖʐ | |||||||||||
Unvoiced Fricative | s | ʃ | x | |||||||||||
Voiced Fricative | z | ʒ | ɣ | |||||||||||
Approximant | w | l | j | |||||||||||
Rhotic | r |
Marc Miyake (2008)[1] proposes alternative reconstructions for Ostapirat's (2000) Proto-Kra retroflex consonants, suggesting that many of them were actually non-retroflexes that had been influenced by pre-syllables. Some examples of Miyake's (2008) revised Proto-Kra reconstructions are provided below.
- *tsəm 'one' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂəm C)
- *tsun 'teach' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂun A)
- *N-tsu 'pillar' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *m-tʂu A)
- *nok 'bird' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳok D)
- *nui 'snow' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳui A)
- *nəl 'fat' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *(m-)ɳəl A)
- *CV-nəŋh 'salty' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʔ-ɳəŋ B)
- *na 'thick' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *C-na A)
- *nak 'give' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *nak D)
- *klep 'fingernail' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʈ-lep D)
- *(k/tV-)loŋ 'vegetable' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɖ-loŋ A)
Additionally, Miyake (2008) revises Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *pwl- as *CV-pl-, *bwl- as *CV-bl-, *m-pl- as *pl-, *(p/d/k)-l- as *(p/d/k)V-l-, *ʈ-l- as k-l-, and *ɖ-l- as *(k/tV)-l-.
Vowels
Proto-Kra has a total of 6 vowels (Ostapirat 2000:235).
Height | Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Close | /i/ | /u/ | |||||
Mid | /e/ | /ə/ | /o/ | ||||
Open | /a/ |
Proto-Kra has 4 diphthongs, which are not found in closed syllables.
- *-ai
- *-aɯ
- *-ui
- *-au
Tones
Proto-Kra had an A–B–C–D tonal system typical of other Tai–Kadai languages (see Proto-Tai language#Tones). The tonal descriptions below are from Ostapirat (2000:237).
- *A: *A is one of the most common tones.
- *B: *B and *D are phonetically similar, as reflexes of tone *D are often the same as those of *B. This regularly occurs in all Kra languages except for Qabiao.
- *C: *C is usually accompanied by glottal constriction and may have originally had a creaky or tense laryngeal quality. Some Gelao varieties and Yalang Buyang display the same reflex for *B and *C.
- *D: *D is the only tone to occur exclusively in closed syllables.
The following table of phonetic characteristics of Proto-Kra tones was adapted from Ostapirat (2000:237).
*A | *B | *C | *D | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Type of final | sonorants, vowels | lax larynx (?) | tense larynx | stops |
Voicing | voiced | unvoiced | unvoiced | unvoiced |
Vocal cords | vibrating | wide open | closed | closed |
Vowel duration | long | medium | short | medium |
Lexicon
Below are reconstructed Proto-Kra forms from Ostapirat (2000).
- Body parts and bodily functions
- *taiC 'armpit (1)'
- *ljeA 'armpit (2)'
- *mumC 'beard'
- *hmokD 'belly'
- *platD 'blood (1)'
- *kɣaC 'blood (2)'
- *plaɯC 'boil (n.)'
- *dəkD 'bone'
- *m-laB 'cheek/face'
- *təkD 'chest'
- *kaŋC 'chin'
- *k-raA 'ear'
- *kaiC 'excrement (1)'
- *ʔikD 'excrement (2)'
- *m-ʈaA 'eye'
- *C-totD 'fart'
- *ʈ-lepD 'fingernail'
- *kokD 'foot'
- *C-dəŋA 'forehead'
- *m-diA 'gall bladder'
- *motD 'hair'
- *m-səmA 'hair (head)'
- *mjaA 'hand'
- *kraiB 'head'
- *hlulC 'heart'
- *C-siC 'intestine'
- *C-kuB 'knee'
- *C-kaA 'leg'
- *təpD 'liver'
- *ʔaɯC 'meat'
- *ŋuŋA 'mouth (1)'
- *mulB 'mouth (2)'
- *m-ɖaɯA 'navel'
- *C-joA 'neck'
- *hŋətD 'nose (1)'
- *teŋC 'nose (2)'
- *hŋwuB 'pus'
- *t-ruB 'saliva'
- *m-baB 'shoulder'
- *kwauB 'skin (1)'
- *taA 'skin (2)'
- *boŋA 'skin (3)'
- *hloŋA 'stomach'
- *ʒaC 'tear (n.)'
- *ɣwjənA 'tendon (1)'
- *ŋenA 'tendon (2)'
- *t-roŋA 'throat (1)'
- *kɣeA 'throat (2)'
- *l-maA 'tongue'
- *l-pənA 'tooth (1)'
- *C-tʃuŋA 'tooth (2)'
- *t-luC 'waist'
- Animals
- *motD 'ant'
- *C-meA 'bear'
- *reA 'bee'
- *ɳokD 'bird'
- *kwaiA 'buffalo'
- *kuC 'cat (wild)'
- *kiA 'chicken'
- *niA 'cow'
- *d-ratD 'crab'
- *ʔakD 'crow (n.)'
- *ditD 'deer'
- *x-maA 'dog'
- *blaɯA 'duck (1)'
- *kapD 'duck (2)'
- *ʈəmA 'egg'
- *p-laA 'fish'
- *x-mətD 'flea'
- *meC 'goat'
- *d-laŋC 'hawk'
- *C-kuA 'horn'
- *ŋjaC 'horse'
- *C-ʈuA 'louse (head)'
- *m-drəlA 'louse (body)'
- *kʒətD 'maggot'
- *taiC 'monkey (1)'
- *krokD 'monkey (2)'
- *m-luA 'monkey (gibbon)'
- *dʒaŋA 'mosquito'
- *x-muA 'pig'
- *hlaiC 'rat'
- *tʃuiA 'shellfish'
- *C-tʃotD 'tail'
- *ŋaA 'snake'
- *(k-)diA 'tiger'
- *gwjaA 'wing'
- Plants
- *tokD 'banana'
- *m-teC 'beans'
- *m-pwaB 'bran'
- *kaA 'cogon grass'
- *m-tiŋA 'cucumber'
- *C-kənA 'ear of grain'
- *hŋaC 'flower (1)'
- *balA 'flower (2)'
- *C-makD 'fruit'
- *C-suiB 'garlic (1)'
- *kɣaA 'garlic (2)'
- *kɣiŋA 'ginger'
- *t-laɯA 'grass/tobacco'
- *ɖiŋA 'leaf'
- *l-kaA 'mushroom'
- *caA 'paddy (grain)'
- *m-pləŋA 'peach'
- *mla(ɯ)C 'rice (cooked)'
- *salA 'rice (husked)'
- *kʒaŋA 'rice'
- *tsaŋA 'root'
- *peA 'seed'
- *l-ŋaA 'sesame'
- *ʒaŋA 'sorghum'
- *p-ɣakD 'taro (1)'
- *rwauC 'taro (2)'
- *ŋjanC 'thorn'
- *tiA 'tree'
- *ɖ-loŋA 'vegetable (1)'
- *ʔopD 'vegetable (2)'
- *məlA 'yam'
- Nature
- *m-tuB1 'ash'
- *laB 'coal'
- *mukD 'cloud/fog'
- *luB 'earth'
- *ʔutD 'earth (soil/mud)'
- *naA 'field (wet)'
- *zaC 'field (dry)'
- *puiA 'fire'
- *suiA 'firewood'
- *l-meA 'frost'
- *tsepD 'hail'
- *kjəlC 'iron'
- *m-ɖjanA 'moon (1)'
- *(C-)tjanA 'moon (2)'
- *dʐuA 'mountain'
- *monA 'rain'
- *jəlA 'rain'
- *kronA 'road'
- *t-laB 'rock (1)'
- *ʔuŋA 'rock (2)'
- *p-raA 'rock (3)'
- *hŋaiA 'sand'
- *praɯB 'silver (1)'
- *ŋjənA 'silver (2)'
- *m-kwənA 'smoke'
- *ɳuiA 'snow'
- *d-luŋA 'star'
- *t-laŋA 'sunlight'
- *(l-)wənA 'sun'
- *ʔuŋC 'water'
- *gwjənA 'wind'
- Material culture
- *kwanA 'ax'
- *daA 'boat'
- *dzaɯB/C 'chopsticks'
- *C-ʃeA 'comb'
- *trauC 'den/nest'
- *x-ŋoA 'door'
- *d-luŋA 'drum'
- *t-lopD 'hat (bamboo)'
- *kranA 'house'
- *kwliA 'ladder (1)'
- *kɣuŋA 'ladder (2)'
- *pluA 'liquor (1)'
- *C-kaC 'liquor (2)'
- *t-laɯA 'medicine'
- *druA 'mortar'
- *ŋlotD 'needle'
- *tsakD 'pestle'
- *m-tʂuA 'pillar'
- *hɲeA 'pillow'
- *C-ʃakD 'rope'
- *ɲoA 'salt'
- *gwaŋA 'sieve'
- *ʔenC 'skirt'
- *ʒunB 'thread'
- *mɣaiA 'village'
- Kinship and pronouns
- *taiA 'brother (elder)'
- *ʒaɯB 'brother (younger)'
- *lakD 'child'
- *baA 'father'
- *paB1 'father'
- *m-liB 'female-in-law'
- *klalA 'grandchild'
- *m-pauB 'grandfather'
- *jaC 'grandmother'
- *kuA 'I (1)'
- *ʔeA 'I (2)'
- *C-paɯC 'male/husband'
- *seA 'male/husband'
- *dʒuC 'male-in-law'
- *maiC 'mother'
- *n(ʒ)iA 'name'
- *bɣuŋC 'orphan'
- *piC 'sister (elder)'
- *ʔonC 'sister (younger)'
- *ŋunA 'spirit'
- *r-maŋA 'spirit'
- *ʒanA 'strength'
- *t-ɣuA 'we'
- *ʔ-nauA/C 'who'
- *məA/B 'you'
- Adjectives
- *kəmA 'bitter'
- *hl/dəmA 'black'
- *ʔaŋC 'bright'
- *ŋəlC 'deaf'
- *(h)ləkD 'deep'
- *r-meA 'drunk'
- *kʒaB 'dry'
- *k-liA 'far'
- *(m-)ɳəlA 'fat'
- *m-tikD 'full'
- *ʔaiA 'good'
- *kʒəlA 'heavy'
- *piŋC 'hot'
- *dokD 'itchy'
- *prenA 'lazy'
- *kʒaC 'light (not heavy)'
- *riC 'long'
- *ʔiB 'many'
- *d-laC 'near'
- *malA 'new'
- *kuB 'old (1)'
- *kjaC/B 'old (2)'
- *(k-)ɖepD 'raw'
- *ŋ(w)aB 'real'
- *hŋwuB 'ripe'
- *roŋB 'rotten'
- *ʔ-ɳəŋB 'salty'
- *tʃiB 'satiated'
- *ɖjelC/B 'shallow'
- *hɲanC 'short (not long 1)'
- *tiC 'short (not long 2)'
- *taB/C 'short (not tall)'
- *gjaɯC 'skinny'
- *bwlatD 'sour'
- *ʔetD 'small'
- *muB 'smelly'
- *tjelC 'sweet'
- *k-ɣwaŋA 'tall'
- *C-naA 'thick'
- *ɣwəC 'thin'
- *tuC 'warm (1)'
- *ʔunB 'warm (2)'
- *rəkD 'wet'
- *r-ʔukD 'white'
- *C-ŋilC 'yellow'
- Verbs
- *p-laA 'afraid'
- *pluŋC 'alive'
- *tsiC 'ask'
- *m-plauB 'bark (v.)'
- *ʔapD 'bathe'
- *ʈaiB 'bite'
- *rəmC 'bite'
- *tsolA 'buy'
- *paC 'carry on back (1)'
- *m-blikD 'carry on back (2)'
- *s-leB 'choose'
- *kləpD 'close eye (1)'
- *nəpD 'close eye (2)'
- *(C-)maA 'come'
- *m-duŋA 'come (return)'
- *ɖəŋA 'crow (v.)'
- *teC 'cut (1)'
- *hrənC 'cut (2)'
- *caɯC 'descend (1)'
- *d-loŋA 'descend (2)'
- *pɣonA 'die'
- *duA 'do'
- *l-pənA 'dream'
- *hromC 'drink'
- *m-ʈakD 'dry in sun'
- *kanA 'eat'
- *tokD 'fall'
- *t-luiA 'flow'
- *dəpD 'forget'
- *nakD 'give'
- *pwənB 'get (1)'
- *m-toB 'get (2)'
- *ɣwaC 'go'
- *kəmC 'hatch'
- *ʔənA 'have'
- *dʒəkD 'hear'
- *komA 'hold in mouth (1)'
- *ʔomA 'hold in mouth (2)'
- *p-ɣonA 'kill'
- *soA 'know'
- *k-soA 'laugh'
- *limC 'lick'
- *(h)ŋwaiA/B 'love'
- *təmC 'plant (v.)'
- *betD 'pluck'
- *(ʔ)jəŋA/C 'rest'
- *ʔiB 'scold (1)'
- *kənC 'scold (2)'
- *hɲanB 'scold (3)'
- *kaiA 'see'
- *tiC 'see (look)'
- *s-ɣwiA 'sell'
- *səlB 'shake/shiver'
- *d-riC 'sick'
- *ŋuB 'sleep (1)'
- *ʔuB 'sleep (2)'
- *muB 'smell'
- *pɣaB 'split (1)'
- *deB 'split (2)'
- *lumC 'steal'
- *tsuC 'steam (v.)'
- *d-lwal C/A 'swallow (v.)'
- *klutD 'take off'
- *tʂunA 'teach'
- *hŋa(ɯ)A 'wait'
- *C-pwiA 'walk'
- *leC 'wear'
- *ɲitD 'weep'
- Space, time, and deictics
- *ljuA 'above'
- *lonA 'back/behind'
- *dəŋC 'back/behind'
- *kunA 'before/front'
- *ɲunB/C 'below'
- *(h)wənA 'day'
- *t-luŋC 'inside'
- *mjaŋB 'left'
- *m-ɖjanA 'month'
- *riC 'outside'
- *(x-)mitD 'right'
- *ʔ-ɲaC/B 'that'
- *ʔ-niC/B 'this'
- *m-(p)ɣiŋA 'year'
- Numerals
- *tʂəmC 'one'
- *saA 'two'
- *tuA 'three'
- *pəA 'four'
- *r-maA 'five'
- *x-nəmA 'six'
- *t-ruA 'seven'
- *m-ruA 'eight'
- *s-ɣwaB 'nine'
- *pwlotD 'ten'
- *kjənA 'hundred'
Notes
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. Did Proto-Kra have retroflex initials? (Parts 1, 2-6, 7-9, 10, 11)
References
- Chen, Y.-L. (2018). Proto-Ong-Be. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
- Hsiu, Andrew. 2017. Potential loanwords in Kra.
- Miyake, Marc. 2018. Chu and Kra-Dai.
- Miyake, Marc. 2013. The other Kra-Dai numerals (Parts 1, 2).
- Miyake, Marc. 2013. Proto-Kra 'seven'.
- Miyake, Marc. 2013. Retroflexion or lenition?: Kra-Dai 'eye'.
- Miyake, Marc. 2013. Thurgood's "Tai-Kadai and Austronesian: the nature of the historical relationship" (1994).
- Miyake, Marc. 2012. t for *p in Vietnamese.
- Miyake, Marc. 2011. Dating Proto-Kra-Dai: the clue of the old chicken.
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. Did Proto-Kra have retroflex initials? (Parts 1, 2-6, 7-9, 10, 11)
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. Correspondences between Proto-Kra and Proto-Tai implosives.
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. From presyllables to Proto-Kra clusters?
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. Proto-Kra presyllables and clusters with labial stops
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. Were Kra words for 'chopsticks' borrowed from Chinese?
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. 布央 Cloth center consonants.
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. Limited knowledge only gets you *so far.
- Miyake, Marc. 2008. What's *so funny about knowledge?
- Ostapirat, Weera. 2000. "Proto-Kra." Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23 (1): 1-251.
- Ostapirat, Weera. (2009). Proto-Tai and Kra-Dai Finals *-l and *-c. Journal of Language and Culture, 28(2), 41-56.
- Ostapirat, Weera. (2013). The Rime System of Proto-Tai. Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics, 7(1), 189-227.
- Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. (2009). The Phonology of Proto-Tai (Doctoral dissertation). Cornell University.
See also
External links
For a list of words relating to Proto-Kra language, see the Proto-Kra language category of words in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |