Prostitution in Africa

The legal status of prostitution in Africa varies widely. It is frequently common in practice, partially driven by the widespread poverty in many sub-Saharan African countries,[1] and is one of the drivers for the prevalence of AIDS in Africa.[2] (36.9% in sub-Saharan Africa)[3] Senegal and Côte d'Ivoire permit the operations of brothels. In other countries, prostitution may be legal, but brothels are not allowed to operate. In some countries where prostitution is illegal, the law is rarely enforced.

  Decriminalization - No criminal penalties for prostitution

  Legalization -prostitution legal and regulated

  Abolitionism - prostitution is legal, but organized activities such as brothels and pimping are illegal; prostitution is not regulated

  Neo-abolitionism - illegal to buy sex and for 3rd party involvement, legal to sell sex

  Prohibitionism - prostitution illegal

  Legality varies with local laws

Transactional sexual relationships are particularly common in sub-Saharan Africa, where they often involve relationships between older men and younger women or girls. In many cases, the woman in a transactional sexual relationship may remain faithful to her boyfriend, while he may have multiple sexual partners. In both of these cases, transactional sex presents an increased risk of HIV infection. As a result, transactional sex is a factor involved in the spread of AIDS in Africa.

This page uses the UN system of subregions.

Central Africa

Angola

Angola
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Angola is illegal[4][5] and prevalent since the 1990s.[6] Prostitution increased further at the end of the civil war in 2001.[7] Prohibition is not consistently enforced. Many women engage in prostitution due to poverty.[8] It was estimated in 2013 that there were about 33,00 sex workers in the country.[9] Many Namibian women enter the country illegally, often via the border municipality of Curoca, and travel to towns such as Ondjiva, Lubango and Luanda to work as prostitutes.[10]

Cameroon

Cameroon
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Cameroon is illegal[11] but tolerated,[12] especially in urban and tourist areas.[4] In the capital, Yaoundé the main area of prostitution is the neighbourhood of Mini Ferme.[13] UNAIDS estimate there are 110,000 sex workers in the country.[9]

Cameroon attracts sex tourism from the West, especially for child prostitution.[14] The Cameroonian government has attempted to stop this trade by agreeing to multilateral agreements such as charters against sex tourism, like signing up with the Universal Federation of Travels Agents Associations (UFTAA).[15]

Central African Republic

Central African Republic
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal

Prostitution is legal and common in the Central African Republic.[4][16] Procuring[4] or profiting off the prostitution of others is illegal, as is coercing people into prostitution. Punishment is a fine and up to one year in prison, or 5 years if the case involves a minor.[16]

Human trafficking and Child prostitution is a problem in the country.[16][17] A study published in 2017[17] found that about two thirds of the prostitutes in the capitol, Bangui, worked part-time to supplement their income or to pay school and college fees. Some of the full-time prostitutes visit hotels, bars and nightclubs looking for wealthy clients, especially French men. They are known as "pupulenge" (dragonflies) or "gba moundjou" (look at the white). Those who work in the poorer neighbourhoods are known as "kata".[17]

Chad

Chad
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Chad is illegal,[4] but common, especially in the urban centres and the south of the country.[4] UNAIDS estimates there are 1,200 prostitutes in the country.[9] Many are from Cameroon.[18][19]

Like many Sub-Saharan African countries, HIV is a problem in Chad. Sex workers are one of the high risk groups.[20] Lack of understanding of the infection,[21] low usage of condoms and poor access to healthcare[22] contribute to a HIV prevalence rate of 20%.[23] This figure is likely to be higher in the Lake Chad area.[21]

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Democratic Republic of the Congo
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is legal[4] but the Congolese penal code punishes pimping, running a bawdy house or brothel, the exploitation of debauchery or prostitution, as well as forced prostitution.[24] Activities that incite minors or promote the prostitution of others have been criminalised.[25] UNAIDS estimated there are 2.9 million sex workers in the country.[9] Many Congolese prostitutes are from abroad or homeless children who have been accused of witchcraft.[26][27]

During the colonial era and the years that followed independence, the Ministry of Health issued calling cards identifying professional sex workers and provided them with medical health checks. However, this system was abandoned in the 1980s. Public order laws are sometimes used against sex workers.[11] Street prostitutes report harassment, violence and extortion from the police.[11]

Equatorial Guinea

Equatorial Guinea
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Equatorial Guinea is illegal.[4] UNAIDS estimate there to be about 6,000 prostitutes in the country.[9] Sex trafficking is a problem in the country.[28] Some Chinese women engage in prostitution in Equatorial Guinea.[29]

Gabon

Gabon
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Gabon is illegal.[4] UNAIDS estimate there to be about 400 prostitutes in the country.[9] Sex trafficking is a problem Gabon.[30]

During his trial in Paris in 1995, Italian fashion designer Francesco Smalto admitted providing the then President of Gabon, Omar Bongo with Parisian prostitutes to secure a tailoring business worth $600000 per year.[31]

Republic of the Congo

Republic of the Congo
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in the Republic of the Congo is illegal but commonplace. The government doesn't enforce the prohibition effectively.[4]

Sex trafficking is a problem in the country.[32]

East Africa

Burundi

Burundi
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Burundi is illegal[4][33] but is commonplace and on the rise.[34] Prostitution is prevalent in all areas of the country,[35] and especially in the largest city and former capital, Bujumbura,[36] and prior to the security crisis in 2015, the tourist areas around Lake Tanganyika.[4] UNAIDS estimate there are 51,00 prostitutes in Burundi.[9] Many women have turned to prostitution due to poverty.[34][35]

Previously law enforcement made little effort to curb prostitution.[4] Political pressures, including from the mayor of Bujumbura, Freddy Mbonimpa,[37] have led to crackdowns all over the country.[36][38]

HIV,[39] sex trafficking[40] and child prostitution[41][42] are problems in the country.

Comoros

Comoros
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Comoros is illegal.[4] It is openly practices in the hotels frequented by foreign nationals.[4] UNAIDS estimate there are 200 prostitutes on the islands.[9]

Comoros is a source country for children subjected to sex trafficking within the country. Women and girls are reportedly subjected to sex trafficking in Comoros. Comorians may be particularly vulnerable to transnational trafficking due to a lack of adequate border controls, corruption within the administration, and the existence of international criminal networks involved in human smuggling.[43]

Djibouti

Djibouti
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Djibouti is illegal,[4] but tolerated.[44] UNAIDS estimate there are 2,900 prostitutes in the country.[9] Many work from bars and nightclubs.[44][45] The is a red-light district in Djibouti City.[46]

Due to its strategic position, troops from United States, China, France, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Italy. Russia, Spain, Germany and the United Kingdom are stationed in bases in Djibouti.[47] The presence of these troops increases the demand for prostitution.[46][47][45] During an investigation in 2015, it was found almost half of the Engineering Department of the Tennessee Army National Guard had used prostitutes whilst stationed in Djibouti.[48]

Eritrea

Eritrea
Prostitution legal and regulated Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Eritrea is legal[49] and regulated.[50] Official figures state there are around 2,000 prostitutes in the country,[49] who are not allowed to operate near schools, hospitals, and churches.[50] According to the 2009 Human Rights Reports, security forces occasionally follow women engaged in prostitution and arrest those who had spent the night with a foreigner.[51] Some women enter prostitution due to poverty.[52][53]

Prostitutes are known locally as "shermuta" in Arabic, or "mnzerma" and "me'amn" in Tigrinya.

Ethiopia

Ethiopia
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal

Prostitution in Ethiopia is legal, but procuring (operating brothels, benefiting from prostitution, etc.) is illegal according to Article 634 of the Ethiopian Penal Code, as revised May 2005.[54] Many feel it has contributed to the increased incidence of AIDS.[55] UNAIDS estimate there are over 29,358 prostitutes in the major cities.[9]

Ethiopia has become a magnet for sex tourism,[56][57][58][59] including child sex tourism.[60]

In 2015, Ethiopian scriptwriter and film director, Hermon Hailay, directed the film Price of Love, which was inspired by her experiences growing up close to prostitutes.[61]

Kenya

Kenya
Prostitution legality varies from area to area Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal

Prostitution in Kenya is widespread.[4] The legal situation is complex. Although prostitution is not criminalised by National law, municipal by-laws may prohit prostitution.[62] (Nairobi banned all sex work in December 2017).[62] It is illegal to profit from the prostitution of others, and to aid, abet, compel or incite prostitution. (Sections 153 and 154 of the Penal Code).[11]

Many foreign men and women take part in sex tourism, which is thriving at resorts along Kenya's coast. Thousands of girls and boys are involved in full-time child prostitution[63] due to poverty in the region.

Madagascar

Madagascar
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Madagascar is legal[11] and common, especially in tourist areas.[4][64] Related activities such as soliciting, procuring, living off the earnings of prostitution or keeping a brothel are prohibited.[11] Public Order laws are also used against prostitutes.[11] There are recent laws against "consorting with female prostitutes".[65][66] People caught paying for sex with children under 14 can face criminal penalties of up to 10 years imprisonment.[67] This is strictly enforced against foreign tourists.[65] As well as in the tourist areas, prostitution also occurs around the mining towns of the interior such as Ilakaka[68] and Andilamena.[69] It was estimated that there were 167,443 sex workers in the country in 2014.[9]

Malawi

Malawi
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation legal

Prostitution in Malawi is legal[11][4][70] and prevalent around hotels and bars in urban and tourist areas.[4] Living off the proceeds of prostitution is illegal.[11][70] In 2015, it was estimated there were 20,000 sex workers in the country.[71]

Prostitution occurs around the logging centres of Luwawa, Nthungwa, Raiply and Kalungulu.[72][73] The prostitutes work from small shacks around the villages in the forests.[72][73]

Human trafficking,[74] HIV[75] and child prostitution[76][77] are problems in the country.

Mauritius

Mauritius
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Mauritius is illegal[4] but practised in parts of Port Louis and other towns.[78] Many turn to prostitution through poverty.[78] UNAIDS estimate there to be 6,223 prostitutes in the country.[9]

The country is a destination for sex tourism,[79] especially child sex tourism.[80]

Mayotte

Mayotte
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Mayotte occurs on the ring road[81] and in the villages of Mtsapere and Kaweni in the commune of Mamoudzou.[82] Many of the prostitutes are illegal immigrants from Madagascar and Comoros, who are transported to the islands at night in kwassa-kwassa boats.[82] An area in Passamainty, also part of the Mamoudzou commune, used for drugs and prostitution, was destroyed by locals in July 2016.[83]

Mozambique

Mozambique
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal

Prostitution in Mozambique is legal and widely practised, and the country also contains illegal brothels. The majority of the population remains below the poverty line, a situation which provides fertile soil for the development of prostitution.[84]

The arrival of peacekeepers operating under the auspices of the UN resulted in an increase in the prostitution industry. In 1992, prostitution in Mozambique had reached such proportions that the post of mediator was created between the military on the one hand and pimps and prostitutes on the other.[85] The problem of prostitution in Mozambique came under international discussion for the first time in the mid 1990s, when the deputy head of the UN mission Behrouz Sadri accused UN peacekeepers of buying sex from underage prostitutes.[86][87]

Réunion

Réunion
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal

Following the French law prohibiting "passive soliciting" in 2003,[88] street prostitution in Réunion was greatly reduced.[89] Many prostitutes now use classified advertisements in newspapers such as "Clicanoo" (Journal de l'île de La Réunion)[90] and the internet.[89] Some students at the University of La Réunion use prostitution to fund their way through university.[91]

Rwanda

Rwanda
Prostitution illegal Buying sex illegal

Prostitution is illegal in Rwanda.[5][4] in all aspects. Prostitutes, clients and any involved third parties (such as pimps and brothel keepers) are criminalised by the Penal Code.[92] However, a draft of a new Penal code that doesn't prohibit prostitution[93] was presented for debate in the Rwandan Parliament in December 2017.[94]

Due to the immense poverty in the country, many women have been forced into prostitution to make money.[95][96] In 2012 it was estimated that there were 12,278 sex workers in the country.[9] It is thought that 45.8% of sex workers in Rwanda are HIV positive.[23]

Seychelles

Seychelles
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Seychelles is illegal but remains prevalent. Police generally do not apprehend prostitutes unless their actions involved other crimes.[97] Many of the estimated 586 prostitutes on the islands[9] are foreign.[98]

Somalia

Somalia
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Somalia is illegal.[99] Although forced marriages exist in areas under insurgent control,[100] there is generally little voluntary prostitution and pre-marital sex in the country according to the African Medical Research and Education Foundation (AMREF).[101] UNAIDS estimated there were 10,957 sex workers in Somalia in 2016.[9]

Sex trafficking[102] and child prostitution[103] are problems in the country.

South Sudan

South Sudan
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal

Prostitution in South Sudan is legal but related activities such as soliciting or brothel-keeping are illegal.[104]

Since independence from Sudan in July 2011, prostitution has expanded considerably, mainly due to an influx of prostitutes from nearby African countries.[104][105][106][107][108][109] In the capital, Juba, the number of prostitutes rose from a few thousand at the time of independence to an estimated 10,000 in 2014.[104] Juba has a large percentage of foreign residents including aid workers and UN personnel. Many of these are single men, or married men living away from home. Their relative wealth has attracted women and girls from within South Sudan and also from Kenya, Congo, Uganda, and Khartoum.[104]

Sex workers are subject to police harassment and brutality.[104]

Tanzania

Tanzania
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Tanzania is illegal but widespread.[110][111][4] Many women and young girls are forced into prostitution due to poverty, lack of job opportunities, culture, and the disintegration of the family unit.[112][113][114] Many university students have to turn to prostitution for economic reasons.[115]

Sex trafficking[116] and child prostitution[114] are a major problems in Tanzania.

The country is a destination for sex tourism, including female and child sex tourism, especially in the coastal resorts and Zanzibar.[117][118][119]

Uganda

Uganda
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Uganda is illegal[11] according to Uganda's 1950 Penal Code,[120] but is widespread despite this.[4][121] Many turn to prostitution because of poverty and lack of other opportunities.[120] A study of Kampala teachers in 2008 showed that teachers were turning to prostitution to increase their income. A sex worker can earn around 1.5 million Ugandan shillings (£439) per month, whereas this would be a yearly wage for a secondary school teacher.[122] There are many Kenyan prostitutes in the country.[121]

Sex trafficking,[123] HIV,[124] and Child prostitution[125] are problems in the country.

Zambia

Zambia
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Zambia is legal[11][4] and common.[126] Related activities such as soliciting and procuring are prohibited.[11] UNAIDS estimate there are 9,285 prostitutes in the capital, Lusaka.[9] Many women turn to prostitution due to poverty.[127] Sex workers report law enforcement is corrupt, inconsistent and often abusive.[11]

In Lusaka, some prostitutes enrol in colleges to obtain a campus room to work from.[128]

Zambia has a huge problem relating to child prostitution.[129] There is a mistaken belief that having intercourse with a virgin will cure AIDS.[130] HIV[131] and sex trafficking[132] are also problems in the country.

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Zimbabwe and related acts, including solicitation, procuring, and keeping a brothel, are illegal[133][134] but thriving.[135][136] Zimbabwe's dire economic situation has forced many women into sex work.[137]

In 1983 there was a major effort to eliminate sex work in post-independence Zimbabwe by rounding up hundreds of women and detaining them until they could prove they were not involved in the trade, otherwise they were sent to resettlement camps. A number of women's groups supported this as strengthening marriage.[138][139]

Northern Africa

Algeria

Algeria
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Algeria is legal but most related activities such as brothel keeping and solicitation are criminalised.[11]

As a result of Arabization of the country, the rise of Islamism[140] and the civil unrest following the economic downturn caused by the 1980s oil glut, brothels were banned in 1982.[141] This forced many of the prostitutes to work on the streets.[140] There are however two brothels that continue to operate under the former French occupation rules of registration and medical examination with the complicity of the Algerian authorities.[141]

Egypt

Egypt
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Egypt is illegal.[142] Police department officially combats prostitution but, like almost all other countries, prostitution exists in Egypt. The prostitutes in Egypt are Egyptian, Russian, and of many other nationalities.[143][144][145][146]

Prostitutes in Ancient Egypt were respected and even considered sacred as the first institutions where prostitution flourished were the temples of the Gods.[147] The god Amun indulged in sexual activity with many women under a religious guise. Families often gave their most beautiful daughters to the priests of his temple. As soon as they grew too old for the tastes of the priests they were allowed to leave. Many practised prostitution until they were married.[147]

Libya

Libya
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Libya is illegal,[148] but common.[149][4] Since the "Popular Revolution" in 1973,[150] laws based on Sharia's zina[151] are used against prostitutes; the punishment can be 100 lashes.[152] Exploitation of prostitutes, living off the earnings of prostitution or being involved in the running of brothels is outlawed by Article 417 of the Libyan Penal Code.[11] Buying sexual services isn't prohibited by law, but may contravene Sharia.[11]

Many of the sex workers are from Nigeria (over 1,000 in 2015).[153] There are also sex workers from other sub-Saharan African countries such as Ghana, Liberia and Sierra Leone. Desperate to flee the poverty of their countries, they have often been trafficked to Libya with the promise of a job in Italy. Some are working as prostitutes in Libya to pay off debt bondage in the hope of travelling on to Italy.[148][154][155]

Morocco

Morocco
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution has been illegal in Morocco since the 1970s. [156] In 2015 the Moroccan Health Ministry estimated there were 50,000 prostitutes in Morocco, the majority in the Marrakech area.[157]

Many children are vulnerable as adoption laws in Morocco are very rigid and difficult. Morocco's increasing reputation for attracting foreign pedophiles made it sign various international treaties to deal with the problem.[158][159][160][161] [162][163] Male prostitution exists but is stigmatised.[164] Health services for Moroccan sex workers include OPALS.[161][165][166][167]

Sudan

Sudan
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Sudan is illegal but widespread.[4] UNAIDS estimate there to be 212,493 prostitutes in the country.[9]

Tunisia

Tunisia
Prostitution legal and regulated Buying sex legal Condoms mandatory[168]

Prostitution in Tunisia is regulated[168] and confined to two small areas, one in Sfax and the other, Sidi Abdallah Guech in Tunis. Outside these two areas prostitution is illegal.[169]

Following the 2011 Jasmine Revolution, the Islamist government turned a blind eye to fundamentalist action against the red light districts.[168] Many were burnt down, in other the prostitutes were turned out and the buildings wrecked. All but those in Tunis[168] and Sfax[170] were closed, those two being saved by the action of locals preventing the fundamentalists entering the areas until police and military arrived.

In 2014 there was a petition to the Ministry of the Interior to allow the red light district in Sousse to reopen but this was unsuccessful.[170]

Southern Africa

Botswana

Botswana
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Botswana is not illegal per se, but laws such as public disorder, vagrancy, loitering and state recognised religious provisions are used to prosecute prostitutes.[11] Related activities such as soliciting and brothel keeping are illegal.[11] Botswana has made proposals to make prostitution legal to prevent the spread of AIDS.[171] However, there has been mass opposition to it by the Catholic Church. Prostitution is widespread and takes place on the street, bars, hotels, brothels and the cabs of long-distance trucks.[171][172][173]

The Gaborone West shopping complex and the streets surrounding it, are the main area of prostitution in the capital, Gaborone.[174] The Itekeng ward of Francistown (locally known as 'Doublers') is the main area of prostitution in the city. The majority of the prostitutes in both cities are from Zimbabwe.[174][175]

Eswatini

Eswatini
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Eswatini is illegal, the anti-prostitution laws dating back to 1889,[176] when Swaziland was a protectorate of South Africa. Law enforcement is inconsistent, particularly near industrial sites and military bases.[4] Police tend to turn a blind eye to prostitution in clubs.[177] There are periodic clamp-downs by the police.[178][179]

Senator Thuli Mswane[180] and NGOs Swaziland AIDS Support Organisation (SASO), Sex Workers Education and Advocacy Taskforce (SWEAT) and Mpumalanga Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) have recommended that prostitution be legalised in Swaziland, in order to allow it to be regulated to reduce harm to the prostitutes and limit the spread of HIV.[181]

Sex trafficking,[182] child prostitution[183] and HIV[184] are problems in the country.

Lesotho

Lesotho
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Lesotho is legal but solicitation and 3rd party involvement are criminalised by section 55 of the Penal Code.[185] There are estimated to be 6,300 prostitutes in Maseru and the Leribe District.[9]

HIV is endemic in the country, especially amongst sex workers, who are estimated to have an HIV prevalence of 71.9%.[23]

Namibia

Namibia
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Namibia is legal[11][4][186] and a highly prevalent common practice.[186] Related activities such as solicitation, procuring and being involved in the running of a brothel are illegal.[11] A World Bank study estimated there were about 11,000 prostitutes in Namibia.[187]

Prostitution takes place all over the country, particularly in border areas, transport corridors, Walvis Bay and the capital Windhoek.[186] Most prostitutes are Namibian, but there are also a significant number from Zambia, Botswana and Angola.[187] Most women work independently and few have pimps.[187]

Most prostitutes in Namibia meet their clients either on the street or in bars.[188] Bars often have a room on the premises for the prostitutes to use, and brothels usually have a bar, so the line between a bar and a brothel is often blurred.[187] Some, more up-market, sex workers are contacted by cell phone or the internet and work in high-end clubs and hotels.[187]

South Africa

South Africa
Prostitution illegal Buying sex illegal

Prostitution is illegal in South Africa for both buying and selling sex, as well as related activities such as brothel keeping and pimping[11] However, it remains widespread.[4] Law enforcement is poor.[11]

In 2013 it was extimated that there were between 121,000 and 167,000 prostitutes in South Africa.[189]

HIV,[190] child prostitution (including sex tourism)[191] and human trafficking[192] are problems in the country.

Western Africa

Benin

Benin
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Benin is legal but related activities such as brothel keeping and benefiting from the prostitution of others are illegal.[4] UNAIDS estimates there to be about 15,000 prostitutes in the country.[9] Most of these are migrants from neighbouring countries, mainly Nigeria, Togo and Ghana. Only 15% of the prostitutes are Beninese.[193] Prostitution occurs on the streets, in bars, restaurants, hotels and brothels.[193] With advent of the smartphone, many prostitutes use apps to make arrangements with clients.[194]

Many women enter prostitution for economic reasons. Some young Beninese women learn English so they can go to Nigeria to work as prostitutes as Nigeria has a thriving sex industry.[193]

In rural areas widows will discretely turn to prostitution to support her family. This is a cultural and social tradition that is not regarded as prostitution by the community, but is regarded as a method of preserving the family name. Any children born from these liaisons take the dead husband's name. It's not uncommon for a widow to have five children after her husband has died.[193]

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Burkina Faso is not specifically prohibited by the law,[4] but soliciting and pimping are illegal.[195] Burkinabe society only accepts sexual intercourse within marriage.[196] In 2009, Voice of America reported that the number of prostitutes in Burkina Faso had increased as a result of the country's poverty.[197] The increase in prostitution has given rise to fears of an increase in the number of Burkinabés infected with HIV and AIDS.

In the capital, Ouagadougou, the main area of prostitution is in the Dapoya district.[198]

Although homosexuality is illegal in the country, male prostitution takes place, especially in the tourist areas.[199]

Cape Verde

Cape Verde
No prostitution laws

Prostitution in Cape Verde is legal[4] and commonplace.[200][201] There are no prostitution laws on the islands except for those concerning trafficking and child prostitution.[202] UNAIDS estimate there are 1,400 prostitutes in Cape Verde,[9] many were from Ghana and Senegal before being expelled by the police.[200][203] Some turn to prostitution through poverty.[204]

Sex tourism, including child sex tourism, is a major occurrence in Cape Verde, especially in Santa Maria and the tourist beach resorts on the Cape Verdian island of Sal.[200][201] The islands are also a destination for female sex tourism.[200][205]

Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)

Ivory Coast
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

In Côte d'Ivoire, prostitution itself (exchanging sex for money) is legal, but associated activities, such as soliciting, pandering or running brothels, are illegal.[206] Sex workers report law enforcement is sparse and corrupt. Police sometimes harass sex workers and demand bribes or sexual favours.[11][206] Transgender prostitutes are often targeted by police and soldiers and subjected to violence.[207] It was estimated in 2014 that there were 9,211 prostitutes in the country.[9] The civil war has left many women in need for wages, so some have resorted to prostitution, as there is high unemployment.[208]

In the capital, Abidjan, most of the prostitutes come from Ghana, Nigeria, Togo, Mali, Senegal and other West African states,[209] the largest group being from Ghana.[210]

The Gambia

Gambia
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in the Gambia is widespread but illegal.[211][212][213] Most of the prostitutes in the Gambia are from Senegal.[214] Prostitution takes place on the beach, in bars and hotels on the coast.[215] Away from the coast, prostitution mainly takes place in bars.[214] The bars are frequently raided and the foreign prostitutes deported. They often return within a few days.[214]

The HIIV infection rate for prostitutes is high.[216]

Ghana

Ghana
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Ghana is illegal but widespread,[217][218] so much so that many Ghanaians are unaware that it's prohibited.[219] There are growing problems of sex tourism, child prostitution[220] and human trafficking.[221][222] High rates of unemployment and poverty in Ghana are believed to be causing a growth in the sex industry.[223][224] Unemployment is a reason teenage workers engage in sex work.[225][209] A high percentage of sex workers are vulnerable to HIV.[226]

Some prostitutes in Ghana are campaigning for the sex trade to be legalised,[225][227] and discussions have taken place.[218]

Guinea

Guinea
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Guinea is illegal.[4] There are estimated to be 8,357 prostitutes in the country.[9]

According to the 2014 Trafficking in Persons Report, Women from Thai, Chinese, Vietnamese are forced prostitution in Guinea.[228]

Guinea-Bissau

Guinea-Bissau
No prostitution laws

Prostitution in Guinea-Bissau is common and there are no prostitution laws.[4] In 2016 it was estimated there were 3,138 prostitutes in the country.[9] Often it is associated with other crimes: Many pimps are also reported to be drug dealers. Poverty leads many women to be tempted into prostitution and cocaine addiction.[229]

Many of the prostitutes in Bissau and other towns in Guinea-Bissau are Manjako women from Caio in the Cacheu Region.[230][209] They tend to be over 30 and wait in designated rooms in their houses for clients. Occasionally they will go to a local bar in search of clients.[230] Prostitutes from Caio also travel to Ziguinchor in Senegal and Banjul in The Gambia to work.[209]

Liberia

Liberia
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution is illegal but widespread in Liberia.[4][231] There are estimated to be 1,822 prostitutes in the country.[9] Like its neighbor, Sierra Leone, child prostitution has seen an increase in the aftermath of civil war.[232]

Mali

Mali
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal

Prostitution is legal in Mali,[4] but third party activities such as procuring are illegal.[233] Prostitution is common in Malian cities.[234] UNAIDS estimate there to be 35,900 prostitutes in the country.[9] Prostitution is on the rise,[235] many having turned to prostitution because of poverty.[236][237]

In the capital, Bamako, a large number of the prostitutes are from Nigeria[238] and other West African countries.[239] In July and August there is an influx of students from various areas of West Africa who work as prostitutes during the summer vacation.[209] There are also many Chinese bars in the country where prostitution occurs. It is estimated that the Chinese sex workers send 2 billion Cfa back to China annually.[240] Many Nigerian prostitutes work in the area around the Morila Gold Mine.[241]

Mauritania

Mauritania
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Mauritania is illegal.[4] There are estimated to be 315 prostitutes in the country.[9] in the capital, Nouakchott, there is a red-light district in the El Mina district. Law enforcement is ineffective and corrupt.[242]

Niger

Niger
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in Niger is illegal[243] but common in the cities, near mines and around military bases.[4] UNAIDS estimate there are 46,630 sex workers in the country.[9] Many have turned to prostitution because of poverty.[244]

Some Nigerian prostitutes ply their trade on the Niger border as many prostitutes are persecuted in their homeland and Niger is perceived as being more amiable and less likely to prosecute them for their trade.[243] Nigerian men prefer to cross the border to seek sex as the punishment in Islamic Nigeria is 50 lashes for "procuration of woman".[243]

In 2017 the government ordered a clampdown on prostitution throughout the country.[245]

Nigeria

Nigeria
Prostitution illegal in Northern States Prostitution legal in Southern States Buying sex illegal in Northern States Buying sex legal in Southern States Brothels illegal Procuring illegal

Prostitution in Nigeria is illegal in all Northern States that practice Islamic penal code. In Southern Nigeria, the activities of pimps or madams, underage prostitution and the operation or ownership of brothels are penalised under sections 223, 224, and 225 of the Nigerian Criminal Code.[246] Even though Nigerian law does not legalize commercial sex work, it is vague if such work is performed by an independent individual who operates on his or her own accord without the use of pimps or a brothel.[247]

Nigeria has become a major exporter of women for prostitution.[148][248][249][250][251] Deputy president of Senate Ike Ekweremadu has proposed a bill to legalise prostitution.[252]

São Tomé and Príncipe

São Tomé and Príncipe
Prostitution illegal Buying sex legal

Prostitution in São Tomé and Príncipe is illegal.[4] UNAIDS report there are 89 prostitutes in the capital, São Tomé.[9] When the islands were settled on by the Portuguese in 1493 under Álvaro Caminha, prostitutes were amongst the degredados sent to the colony.[253]

Senegal

Senegal
Prostitution legal & regulated Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Senegal is legal and regulated. Prostitutes must be at least 21 years of age, register with the police, carry a valid sanitary card, and test negative for sexually transmitted infections.[254] It has been legal since 1969 to sell sex as long as prostitute has registered, over 21 years old, has a regular medical check-up, and can present an up-to-date medical report card to the police upon request according to Under Senegal's Penal Code (articles 318 to 327 bis).[255][256][257] The average age for a sex worker in Senegal is 28 years old and female.[258] Senegal has the distinction of being the only country in Africa to not only legalise prostitution but regulate it.[259][260] The only condition that it is done discreetly. Prostitution was first legalised in 1966.[261]

Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Sierra Leone is legal[4][262] and commonplace.[263] Soliciting and 3rd party involvement are prohibited by the Sexual Offences Act 2012.[264] UNAIDS estimate there are 240,000 prostitutes in the country.[9] They are known locally as 'serpents' because of the hissing noise they use to attract clients.[265]

Since the end of the ten-year civil war in Sierra Leone, there has been an increase in child prostitution, especially among children who are struggling to survive.[266] This has happened in spite of the fact that child prostitution is illegal in the country.[267]

Togo

Togo
Prostitution legal Buying sex legal Brothels illegal Procuring illegal Solicitation illegal

Prostitution in Togo is legal[268] and commonplace.[269] Related activities such as solicitation, living off the earnings of prostitution or procuring are prohibited.[268] Punishment is up to 10 years imprisonment if minors or violence is involved.[268]

In 2014, it was estimated there were 10,284 sex workers in the country.[9] A 2011 survey found 51% worked in bars and 26% in brothels.[270] About half of the country's sex workers are in Lomé.[270] According to research published in 2015, between 2005 and 2015, prostitution in the country increased 180%,[269] and that three quarters of the prostitutes are Togolese, and Ghanaian women 15%.[269] It is not uncommon for prostitutes travel between Togo and neighbouring countries to find work.[271]

See also

• Transactional sex

References

1. "Increasing prostitution driven by poverty in drought-stricken Kenya – Welthungerhilfe". Welthungerhilfe.de. Archived from the original on 3 January 2007. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
2. "AIDS & Prostitution". Avert.org. 12 November 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
3. "La OMS defiende la despenalización de la prostitución para reducir los contagios de VIH". ABC.es. 12 December 2012. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
4. "The Legal Status of Prostitution by Country". ChartsBin. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
5. "100 Countries and Their Prostitution Policies - Legal Prostitution". Procon. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
6. Pehrsson, Kajsa; Cohen, Gabriela; Ducados, Henda; Lopes, Paulette (April 2000). "Towards Gender Equality in Angola" (PDF). IDA. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
7. "ANGOLA: Sex work in separatist Cabinda". IRIN. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
8. "Angola 2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
9. "Sex workers: Population size estimate - Number, 2016". www.aidsinfoonline.org. UNAIDS. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
10. "Sex trade chase the dollar into Angola". New Era Newspaper Namibia. 6 January 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
11. "Sex Work Law - Countries". Sexuality, Poverty and Law. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
12. "Sex Work in Cameroon". Global Network of Sex Work Projects. 14 November 2014. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
13. "Yaounde Now Doubles As Prostitution Capital of Cameroon – Kamer Kongosa". Kamer Kongosa. 13 July 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2018.
14. Nzouankeu, Anne Mireille (30 May 2012). "Trending: Chinese sex workers in Cameroon". Radio Netherlands Worldwide. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014.
15. "2007 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Cameroon". United States Department of State. 11 March 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
16. "Central African Republic". State.gov. 25 February 2009. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
17. Longo, J. D; Simaléko, M. M; Ngbale, R; Grésenguet, G; Brücker, G; Bélec, L (2017). "Spectrum of female commercial sex work in Bangui, Central African Republic". Sahara-J. 14 (1): 171–184. doi:10.1080/17290376.2017.1394907. PMC 5678296. PMID 29092678.
18. Houmfa, Mohamadou (12 September 2012). "Chad: Good Business for Cameroonian Prostitutes in Chad". Radio Netherlands Worldwide. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
19. "Chad 'ghost' girls forced to choose between prostitution and hunger". IOL News. 9 November 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
20. "CHAD – Humanitarian and HIV Overview". HIV in Emergencies. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
21. "Sex workers ill-informed about HIV". IRIN. 25 June 2010. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
22. "HIV and SRHR Linkages Infographic Snapshot: Chad 2016" (PDF). United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
23. "HIV prevalence amongst sex workers". www.aidsinfoonline.org. UNAIDS. 2016. Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
24. Hilhorst, D; Mashanda, M; Bahananga, M; Mugenzi, R; Mwapu, I (1 January 2016). "Women engaging in transactional sex and working in prostitution: Practices and underlying factors of the sex trade in South Kivu, the Democratic Republic of Congo" (PDF). Gov.uk. Secure Livelihoods Research Consortium. Retrieved 26 January 2017.
25. "Democratic Republic of the Congo". US State Department. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
26. "Chinese prostitutes resist effort to rescue them from Africa". Times Live. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
27. "Congo's street kids choose prostitution over death". Radio Netherlands Worldwide. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
28. "Equatorial Guinea 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
29. "Equatorial Guinea". 2014 Trafficking in Persons Report. U.S. State Department.
30. "Gabon 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
31. "Prostitution trial upsets France-Gabon ties". New York Times.
32. "Republic of the Congo, 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
33. "OHCHR Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women examines the reports of Burundi". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 26 October 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
34. "Au Burundi, la prostitution est synonyme de Pauvreté". Burundi5 (in French). 14 June 2012. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
35. "Au Burundi, la prostitution rime avec pauvreté". Yaga Burundi (in French). 19 August 2016. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
36. "Les grands réseaux du vagabondage sexuel à Bujumbura". Bujumbura News (in French). 25 July 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
37. Nkurunziza, Dieudonné (8 August 2016). "La maire de Bujumbura lutte est contre la prostitution RTNB Burundi". Radio Télévision Nationale du Burundi (in French). Retrieved 27 February 2018.
38. "Des Congolais arrêtés au Burundi pour "séjour illégal" et "actes de prostitution"". ARIB (in French). 30 October 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
39. "Burundi 2016 Country Factsheet". UNAIDS. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
40. "Burundi 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
41. "Underage prostitutes in Kamenge commune". IWACU English News. 10 February 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
42. Arseneault, Michel (25 September 2013). "Hundreds of Burundi girls lured into child prostitution". RFI. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
43. "Comoros 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
44. Terlingen, Sanne; Kooy, Hannah (26 March 2016). "How the Djibouti Palace Kempinski Hotel facilitates prostitution -". Ayyaantuu News. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
45. Egbejule, Eromo (12 February 2018). "Djibouti's Booming Nightlife Scene — Fueled by Foreign Militaries". OZY. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
46. Murray, Kieran (14 July 2000). "Legionnaires enjoy Djibouti's red light life". IOL News. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
47. Acheson, Ray. "REMOTE WARFARE AND SEXUAL VIOLENCE IN DJIBOUTI" (PDF). Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
48. Acheson, Ray (2017). "Remote Warfare And Sexual Violence in Djibouti" (PDF). Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. p. 32. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
49. "OHCHR Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women considers the reports of Eritrea". OHCHR. 26 February 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
50. Arshad, Dr. Md. (March 2012). "Prostitution in Africa: A sociological Study of Eritrea (North East Africa)" (PDF). Indian Streams Research Journal. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
51. "2009 Human Rights Report: Eritrea". State.gov. 11 March 2010. Archived from the original on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
52. Matsuoka, Taro (21 November 2002). "Poverty forces some Eritreans into prostitution". Walnet. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
53. Connell, Dan; Killion, Tom (2011). Historical dictionary of Eritrea (2nd ed.). Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810859524.
54. "2008 Human Rights Reports: Ethiopia – Section 5 Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons", United States Department of State website (accessed 26 May 2009)
55. Kathleen Griffin, "Ethiopia – HIV/AIDS", Canadian Community Newspapers Association (accessed 26 May 2009)
56. "Gay and Sex tourism growing in Ethiopia says NGO". Yeroo. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
57. Igunza, Emmanuel (5 March 2015). "Ethiopian cinema focuses on prostitution". BBC News. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
58. "France:Egalite,Liberte,Raciste!". Thenewblackmagazine.com. 14 January 2006. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
59. John Iliffe (25 December 1987). The African Poor: A History. p. 184. ISBN 9780521348775. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
60. "Ethiopia 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
61. Igunza, Emmanuel (5 March 2015). "Ethiopian cinema focuses on prostitution". BBC News. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
62. "Nairobi County Assembly Bans Sex Work in the City". NSWP. 12 December 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
63. La explotación sexual de menores en Kenia alcanza una dimensión horrible – UNICEF España. Unicef.es (17 January 2007). Retrieved on 2011-05-09.
64. "2008 Human Rights Report: Madagascar". US State Department. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
65. "Madagascar travel advice". UK Government. 4 March 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
66. "General Information for Madagascar". Findaport. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
67. "Madagascar acts to curb sex tourism". BBC. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
68. Ross, Aaron (31 January 2014). "Madagascar, where child prostitution is common, cheap and 'trivial'". Public Radio International. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
69. "What happens after a mining rush? Photographs from Madagascar". Mongabay Environmental News. 31 July 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
70. "Universal Periodic Review of Malawi" (PDF). Sexual Rights Initiative. May 2015. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
71. "Malawi sex workers win court case". IOL News. 22 May 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
72. "Sawyers queue for unprotected sex in Chikangawa". www.malawitoday.com. 3 February 2012. Archived from the original on 20 April 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
73. "The strange life of a sex worker in Malawi". GlobalPost. 7 February 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
74. "Malawi 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
75. "Malawi 2016 Country factsheet". UNAIDS. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
76. "Malawi: Prostitution fuelled by poverty and parental neglect". Rnw.nl. 28 September 2009. Archived from the original on 13 February 2010. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
77. "Malawian girls queue up for sex to survive". News24. 30 March 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
78. Cleary, Tom (2011). Mauritius - Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture. Kuperard. ISBN 9781857335460.
79. Rausenberger, Julie (1 September 2015). "SELLING SEX IN A LOVER'S PARADISE - Negotiating sex tourism and bi-national relationships in Mauritius". ResearchGate. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
80. Smart, Tony (15 January 2011). "The Dark Side of a Paradise Island". The Independent. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
81. "Mayotte, la vérité! Attention dur !!!". Philmayotte2013 (in French). 31 August 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
82. François, Fabrice (4 January 2013). "Mayotte : La prostitution clandestine en augmentation". Zinfos 974, l'info de l'ile de La Réunion (in French). Retrieved 29 December 2017.
83. "Mayotte : Un quartier de la prostitution détruit par les habitants | Comores Infos". Comores Infos (in French). 10 July 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
84. "Living with death in Mozambique". Salon. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
85. Sheila Jeffreys (28 January 2016). "Военная проституция" [Military Prostitution] (in Russian). WOMENATION. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
86. "Prostitution Report Accuses U.N. Troops in Mozambique". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
87. "U.N. Focuses on Peacekeepers Involved in Child Prostitution". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
88. Lichfield, John (21 March 2005). "French police turn attention to 'the pimp on the corner' - Europe - World - The Independent". The Independent. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
89. "Les prostituées de La Réunion se mettent à l'heure d'Internet". Panapress (in French). 7 July 2003. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
90. "Prostitution sur Clicanoo". Le Pirate de la Réunion (in French). 11 April 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
91. Robert, Gabriel (2 September 2013). "Social : Etudiants : de la précarité à la prostitution". Imaz Press Réunion : l'actualité de la Réunion en photos (in French). Retrieved 29 December 2017.
92. "Organic Law instituting the penal code" (PDF). Official Gazette. 14 June 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
93. Mugisha, Ivan R. (12 November 2017). "Rwandan civil society pushes for legalisation of prostitution". The East African. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
94. Kwibuka, Eugene (17 November 2017). "Rwanda: Heated Debate as MPs Start Scrutiny of Draft Penal Code". The New Times (Kigali). Retrieved 13 January 2018.
95. "Sisters of Rwanda". The Eye Magazine. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
96. "Prostitution growing with us". IGIHE. 20 July 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
97. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Seychelles (2007) Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (11 March 2008).
98. "Prostitution in Seychelles". Seychelles Weekly. Retrieved 12 March 2018.
99. "Somalia – State Security Services". Library of Congress. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
100. Shinn, David. "Al Shabaab's Foreign Threat to Somalia". Foreign Policy Research Institute. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
101. "Africa Trip – AMREF". Retrieved 21 March 2013.
102. "Somalia 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2018.
103. Anne, Hanley (9 September 1996). "Somali children sold in Europe 'for prostitution'". The Independent. Retrieved 3 February 2018.
104. Sykes, Brittany Venchelle (2013). "Whore or Homemaker? The Rocky State of Illegal Prostitution in the Newly-Formed South Sudan and a Practical Resolution to Curtail the Epidemic". University of Georgia School of Law. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
105. "Sex workers tell their stories about growing prostitution in South Sudan". Sudan Tribune. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
106. "Girls trafficked to South Sudan". Observer. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
107. "Kenyan Call Girls Exporting Sex To Juba". The Star. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
108. "Who is Responsible for Illegal Immigration into South Sudan?". South Sudan News Agency. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2012.
109. Wangui, Joyce Joan (8 August 2012). "Prostitution in Juba, the inside story". The Star. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
110. "DailyNews Online Edition - 'Prostitutes' adopt new trick to milk customers". Dailynews.co.tz. 23 March 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
111. "DailyNews Online Edition - Prostitution shames the nation, it must be banned". Dailynews.co.tz. 16 May 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
112. "Chapter 4: Safari - The Journey". Between their stories and our realities (Report). The People's Decade of Human Rights Education. January 1999.
113. "TANZANIA: Prostitutes work the graveyard shift in Dar es Salaam". IRIN. 28 July 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
114. Mwita, Sosthenes (5 October 2015). "Tanzania: When Needy Girls Opt for Redlight". Tanzania Daily News (Dar es Salaam). Retrieved 15 January 2018.
115. "Thomson Reuters Foundation | News, Information and Connections for Action". Trust.org. 28 February 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
116. "Tanzania 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
117. Tairo, Apolinari (9 January 2009). "Italians and their "sexcapades" in East Africa". eTurboNews (eTN). Retrieved 15 January 2018.
118. Crous, Marisa (15 July 2016). "Sex tourism in Africa: European women who pay for sex with locals". W24. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
119. Francoeur, Robert T.; Reiss, Ira L.; Noonan, Raymond J.; Opiyo-Omolo, Beldina; Perper, Timothy (2006). The Continuum complete international encyclopedia of sexuality (Updated, with more countries. ed.). New York, NY: Continuum. ISBN 978-0826414885.
120. Guyson, Nangayi (2 May 2017). "Sex trade becomes easy source of income for urban Ugandans. - Alleastafrica". All East Africa. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
121. Mabel, Winnie (8 June 2016). "Kenyan prostitutes take over Kampala, Ugandans are not happy". Tuko - Kenya news. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
122. Nafula, Jane (28 April 2008). "Uganda: Teachers Turn to Prostitution" – via AllAfrica.
123. "Uganda 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
124. "Uganda 2016 Country factsheet". UNAIDS. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
125. Oloya, Opiyo; Businge, Conasn (17 August 2007). "12,000 child prostitutes in Uganda". New Vision. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
126. "Prostitution in Livingstone still rife". Zambia Daily Mail. 26 October 2016. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
127. Ncube, Sipilisiwe (29 November 2017). "Poverty pushing prostitution, abortion to alarming levels – activist". Zambia: News Diggers!. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
128. "Too Much Prostitution IN Lusaka Colleges". Kitwe Times. 15 January 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
129. "Executive Summary Zambia" (PDF). ECPAT. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
130. "The history of HIV and AIDS in Zambia". 13 May 2010. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
131. "Zambia 2016 Country Factsheet". www.unaids.org. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
132. "Zambia 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
133. "Zimbabwe - Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2002". United States Department of State. 31 March 2003. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
134. "Legislation of Interpol member states on sexual offences against children - Zimbabwe" (PDF). Interpol. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
135. Philp, Catherine (26 March 2008). "Zimbabwean children who sell their bodies ten times a day just to buy bread". The Times. London. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
136. Moving Prostitution behind Closed Gates Zimbo Jam Oct 5 2012 Archived 14 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine
137. "Mothers In Zimbabwe Turn To Prostitution Despite AIDS Epidemic. TRCB News August 15, 2012".
138. Seidman, Gay W. (13 April 1984). "Women in Zimbabwe: Postindependence Struggles". Feminist Studies. 10 (3): 419–440. doi:10.2307/3178033. JSTOR 3178033.
139. S Jacobs, T Howard. Women in Zimbabwe: Stated policy and State action, in Haleh Afshar 9ed. Women, State, and Ideology: Studies from Africa and Asia. SUNY Press, 1987 ISBN 9780791494332
140. Abid, Larbi (12 January 2007). "Des maladies vénériennes, de la prostitution". Sante Tropicale (in French).
141. Bouraque, Tarek (5 January 2015). "Prostitution: le paradoxe algérien". Telquel (in French). Retrieved 26 February 2018.
142. "Legislation of Interpol member states on sexual offences against children - Egypt" (PDF). Interpol. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
143. "A Diwan of contemporary life" Archived 26 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine Al Ahram, 7–13 June 2001
144. "Egypt deports 'east European prostitutes'" BBC News, 27 June 2002
145. Devil in the detail" Archived 25 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine by Shaden Shehab, Al Ahram, 22–28 February 2007
146. "The Virgin Prostitute!" by Marwa Rakha, American Chronicle, 29 May 2007
147. El Saadawi, Narwal (1985). "Prostitution in Egypt" (PDF). UNESCO. Retrieved 22 April 2017.
148. Choudhury, Salah Uddin Shoaib (22 August 2011). "Removing curtains of Arab harems - III". Weekly Blitz. Dhaka. Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. Retrieved 28 June 2012.
149. Morgan, Robin (1996). Sisterhood is global : the international women's movement anthology (Feminist Press ed.). New York: Feminist Press. ISBN 978-1558611603.
150. "Colonel Gaddafi: Muammar Abuminyar Alqaddafi (معمر القذافي)". Temehu. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
151. Joseph, Saud (2005). Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics. Leiden [u.a.]: Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 978-9004128187.
152. Ilkkaracan, Pinar (13 May 2016). Deconstructing Sexuality in the Middle East: Challenges and Discourses. Routledge. ISBN 9781317153702. Retrieved 26 January 2017 – via Google Books.
153. Agha, Eugene (29 April 2015). "1,000 Nigerian girls working as prostitutes in Libya – Police". Daily Trust. Retrieved 9 January 2018.
154. "Libya: African Women in "chains"" (PDF). Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 26 January 2017.
155. Trafficking in Persons Report (10th Ed. ). DIANE Publishing. 26 January 2017. ISBN 9781437937169. Retrieved 26 January 2017 – via Google Books.
156. "2007 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Morocco". United States Department of State. 11 March 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
157. "French Documentary Shows Life of Two Moroccan Prostitutes". Morocco World News. 22 June 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
158. "Prisoner pardon shows how much Morocco has changed | The National". Thenational.ae. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
159. Worldcrunch.com (5 October 2012). "After Bangkok, Marrakesh Forced To Face Plague Of Sex Tourism". Worldcrunch.com. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
160. Tennent, James (3 September 2013). "Is Morocco the Latest Haven for European Paedophiles? | VICE | United Kingdom". Vice.com. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
161. Binoual, Imrane; Touahri, Sarah (27 November 2008). "New report addresses causes of sex tourism in Morocco". Magharebia. United States Africa Command. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
162. "Morocco Clamps Down On Sex Tourism". Archived from the original on 19 September 2007.
163. "streetlife". BBC World Service. 1 July 2000. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
164. Boushaba A, Imane L, Tawil O, Himmich H. "Study of the characteristics of male prostitution in Morocco and development of appropriate HIV/AIDS prevention strategies". Gateway.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
165. "Moroccan prostitutes focus of controversial AIDS education effort". Magharebia. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
166. "Child Sex Tourism in Morocco". France 24. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
167. "Morocco – Travel". Gay Times. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
168. Omlin, Christina. "The Big Reveal". Qantara. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
169. "FAQ: Amnesty policy to protect the human rights of sex workers". Amnesty International. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
170. "Prostitutes want Tunisia's red light districts to get back in business". PRI. 19 December 2004. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
171. "Botswana mulls legalising prostitution to fight HIV". BBC. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
172. "Push to legalise prostitution in Botswana". Times Live. Archived from the original on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
173. "Legalising prostitution will benefit the rich". The Botswana Gazette. Archived from the original on 19 December 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
174. Mooketsi, Lekopanye (23 June 2014). "The sex hub of Gaborone". The Monitor. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
175. Jakes, Stephen (1 April 2015). "Zimbabwean women blamed for rampant prostitution in Botswana, as one round costs P20". Bulawayo24 News. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
176. "Swaziland Crimes Act-61 of 1889" (PDF). Organisation of South African Law Libraries. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
177. "Swaziland-prostitutes: Swazi prostitutes offer credit to 'esteemed customers'". Agence France-Presse. 27 August 2001. Archived from the original on 25 April 2003. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
178. Dlamini, Jabulisa (7 August 2017). "Day, night raids on Manzini sex workers". Times Of Swaziland. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
179. Malinga, Lindelwa (10 August 2017). "Cops swoop on Mbabane, Lobamba sex workers". Times Of Swaziland. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
180. "SWAZILAND: Controversy Over Calls To Legalise Sex Work". CABSA. 21 October 2009. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
181. "Swaziland Told To Legalise Prostitution, Gay Marriage". African Eye News Service, Swaziland. 30 September 2009. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
182. "Swaziland 2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
183. Chawane, Nomvula (23 October 2015). "Under-age prostitution rife in the city". Mpumalanga News. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
184. "Swaziland 2016 Country factsheet". UNAIDS. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
185. "Penal Code Act, 2010". Lesotho Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
186. Kiremire, Merob Kambamu (February 2007). "Prostitution in Windhoek, Namibia: An exploration of poverty" (PDF). Namibia Institute for Democracy. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
187. "Sex Work and HIV in Namibia: Review of the literature and current programmes" (PDF). UNFPA Namibia & UNAIDS Namibia. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
188. "Whose body is it?: commercial sex work and the law in Namibia" (PDF). Legal Assistance Centre (Namibia). 2002. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
189. "Estimating the size of the sex worker population in South Africa, 2013" (PDF). SWEAT. Retrieved 9 December 2017.
190. "No condoms, more money say prostitutes". Sowetanl Lve. 11 September 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
191. "Executive Summary South Africa" (PDF). ECPAT. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
192. "2017 Trafficking in Persons Report". US Department of State. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 10 December 2017.
193. Kroone, Maria Huberta. "Prostitution in Benin, Benin (West-Africa)" (PDF). Stichting Aktie Benin (SAB). Retrieved 27 February 2018.
194. Khalil, Fawaz (6 July 2017). "Au Bénin, le racolage passe désormais par les smartphones". Le Monde.Africa (in French). Retrieved 27 February 2018.
195. "2009 Human Rights Report: Burkina Faso". State.gov. 11 March 2010. Archived from the original on 15 March 2010. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
196. "Burkina Faso". Child-hood.com. 31 August 1990. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
197. Ricci Shryock (1 November 2009). "Burkina Faso Residents Lament Rise in Prostitution". Voice of America.
198. "Exposé en Anglais sur la prostitution au Burkina Faso by Kader Rabo - mon exposé". Mon Expose. 16 February 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
199. Prods, Filaos. "Le Burkina Faso en ligne". Planete-Burkina (in French). Retrieved 7 January 2018.
200. "Sex tourism on the rise?". IRIN. 8 August 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
201. Dret, Tud (19 January 2018). "Sex Tourism & Prostitution". Real Cape Verde. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
202. "Cabo Verde: Código Penal (aprovado pelo Decreto Legislativo N° 4/2003 de 18 de Novembro de 2003)". World Intellectual Property Organization (in Portuguese). 18 November 2003. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
203. "Ghanaians traveling to Cape Verde Islands and Senegal warned". Ghana Web. 21 September 2002. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
204. "Universal Periodic Review Cape Verde" (PDF). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. September 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
205. "Cape Verde - A Paradise near the North Africa, wonderful and cheap". MissioneVacanze (in Italian). Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
206. "2008 Human Rights Report: Cote d'Ivoire". United States Department of State. 25 February 2009. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
207. Corey-Boulet, Robbie (12 October 2012). "Transgender prostitutes face abuse in Ivory Coast". Taiwan News. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
208. "2006 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices " Africa " Cote d'Ivoire". United States Department of State. 6 March 2007. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
209. Ditmore, Melissa Hope (1 January 2006). Encyclopedia of Prostitution and Sex Work. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313329708. Retrieved 23 January 2017 – via Google Books.
210. Kouame, K (1994). "[Migration and prostitution in the Abidjan region]". Laval University. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
211. "Gambia: A Call for Eradication of Sex Tourism". Allafrica.com. 11 February 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2017 – via AllAfrica.
212. "Gambia, The". State.gov. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
213. Sherwood, Harriet (29 January 2016). "Happy hour and drinks are still flowing in the Gambia, the newest Islamic state". Retrieved 14 March 2017 – via The Guardian.
214. H. Pickering; J. Todd; D. Dunn; J. Pbpin; A. Wilkins. "Prostitutes And Their Clients: A Gambian Survey". CiteSeerX 10.1.1.636.4058.
215. Haines, Gavin (24 May 2017). "How Gambia plans to shed its sleazy reputation". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 17 December 2017.
216. Pickering, H.; Todd, J.; Dunn, D.; Pepin, J.; Wilkins, A. (1 January 1992). "Prostitutes and their clients: a Gambian survey". Soc Sci Med. 34 (1): 75–88. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(92)90069-3. PMID 1738859.
217. "2008 Human Rights Report: Ghana". State.gov. 25 February 2009. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
218. Overview of Trafficking and Prostitution Laws in the Middle East and Africa (PDF) (Report). Thomson Reuters Foundation. November 2012. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
219. Bindman, Jo; Doezema, Jo (1997). "Redefining Prostitution as Sex Work on the International Agenda" (PDF). Atria. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
220. Tornyi, Emmanuel. "UNICEF report: Cape Coast tops child prostitution in Ghana – Survey – News – Pulse". Retrieved 23 January 2017.
221. "Prostitution in Ghana". Retrieved 23 January 2017.
222. "Ghana". Retrieved 23 January 2017.
223. Yeboah, Muriel A. (1 January 2008). Gender and Livelihoods: Mapping the Economic Strategies of Porters in Accra, Ghana (PhD thesis). West Virginia University. ProQuest 304446957.
224. Opare, Albert (24 March 2016). "Relationship Between Unemployment And Prostitution In Ghana". modernghana.com. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
225. Isaac Kaledzi (21 August 2013). "Prostitutes in Ghana battle for recognition". Deutsche Welle.
226. "IOM Study shows HIV vulnerability among female sex workers in Ghana". Newstimeafrica.com. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
227. "Make Prostitution Legal - Prostitutes Urge Gov't". ghanatrade.gov.gh. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
228. "Guinea". 2014 Trafficking in Persons Report. U.S. State Department.
229. Marco Vernaschi (30 June 2009). "Guinea Bissau: Crack and prostitution, cocaine's other face". Pulitzer. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
230. Buckner, Margaret (1999). "Village women as town prostitutes: cultural factors relevant to prostitution and HIV epidemiology in Guinea-Bissau" (PDF). Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
231. "2006 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices -Liberia". United States Department of State. 6 March 2007. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
232. Toweh, Alphonso (10 May 2006). "Sexual abuse threatens Liberia's recovery". London: Guardian. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
233. "Droit-Afrique - Portail du droit des 24 pays d'Afrique francophone" (PDF). Droit-Afrique. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
234. Report on Human Rights Practices 2006: Mali. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (6 March 2007)
235. "Prostitution increasing in Mali". UPI. 5 June 2013. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
236. "Les Carnets Secrets de la prostitution au Mali : Fifi explique avoir couché avec 2 780 hommes * Niarela.net * Mali". Niarela (in French). 26 February 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
237. Neubauer, Inès (2014). "Prostitution in Bamako, Mali". World University Service (in German). Retrieved 11 March 2018.
238. Global Perspectives on Prostitution and Sex Trafficking: Africa, Asia, Middle East, and Oceania. Lexington Books. 2011. p. 24. ISBN 9780739132777.
239. Röschenthaler, Ute; Schulz, Dorothea (2015). Cultural Entrepreneurship in Africa. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 9781317529620.
240. Thera, Kady. "La prostitution à bon marché à Bamako". Bamada (in French). Retrieved 11 March 2018.
241. Plasse, Stéphanie (24 May 2008). "Quand les mines d'or du Mali profitent à la prostitution". Afrik (in French). Retrieved 11 March 2018.
242. "Sex work for survival and profit". IRIN. 17 February 2005. Retrieved 4 January 2019.
243. "Niger's border prostitutes and the profits of Islam". Independent. London. 5 May 2001. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
244. "Famine heightens prostitution in Niger". Panapress. 9 September 2005. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
245. "Court convicts 11 prostitutes in Niger - Vanguard News". Vanguard News. 6 February 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
246. "Criminal Code Act-Tables". Retrieved 31 October 2016.
247. Sessou, Ebun (15 October 2011). "Legalising Prostitution: Women give Ekweremadu hard knocks". Vanguard. Lagos.
248. "Alaba Rago: Where Prostitution Has Overtaken Trading". Nigerian Tribune. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
249. "Nigeria's largest sex market". The Sun (Nigeria). Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
250. "60% of prostitutes in Italy and Belgium are Nigerians". Daily Times of Nigeria. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
251. "Nigeria has highest victims of forced labour, prostitution". Nigerian Tribune. Archived from the original on 19 December 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
252. "Ekweremadu regrets prostitution comments". Daily Times of Nigeria. Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
253. "Culture of São Tomé e Príncipe - history, people, women, beliefs, food, customs, family, social, marriage". Every Culture. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
254. "2008 Human Rights Report: Senegal". US Department of State. 25 February 2009. Archived from the original on 26 February 2009.
255. Chi Mgbako; Laura A. Smith (2011). "Sex Work and Human Rights in Africa". Fordham International Law Journal. 33. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
256. "Sex work is legalised in Senegal". Nswp.org. 27 April 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
257. "Senegal". State.gov. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
258. Dept, International Monetary (1 January 2013). "Senegal: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 12 March 2017 – via Google Books.
259. Look, Anne. "Senegal Vigilant Against HIV/AIDS Despite Success". Voanews.com. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
260. "Senegal draws tourists with sun, sea and sex". Pri.org. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
261. "Senegal: where "card-carrying" sex workers are legal". AIDS Anal Afr. 5 (3): 10–11. 1 June 1995. PMID 12289033.
262. Benjamin, Gabriel (6 July 2015). "Freetown's dens of commercial sex workers". Sierra Leone Concord Times. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
263. "Sierra Leone Prostitutes Accuses Policemen Of Demanding For Free S^x, Harassment & More". Sierra Loaded. 9 August 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
264. "Sexual Offences act 2012" (PDF). Sierra Leone Gazette. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
265. Smith, Graham (26 November 2014). "Hissing And Sighing: The Lament Of Sex Workers In Sierra Leone". NPR.org. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
266. "Sierra Leone". State.gov. 4 March 2002. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
267. "Trafficking in Persons Report" (PDF). Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. Retrieved 31 July 2010.
268. "Togo: Code pénal du Togo (révisé en avril 2000)". Wipo. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
269. "Prostitution au Togo : Progression de plus 180% en 10 ans. Bravo, Faure ! - 27avril.com". Actualité au Togo, Monde (in French). 21 August 2015.
270. Pitché, Palokinam; Gbetoglo, Komi; Saka, Bayaki; Akakpo, Séfako; Landoh, Dadja Essoya; d'Alméida, Stéphane; Banla, Abiba Kere; Sodji, Dométo; Deku, Kodzo (21 June 2013). "HIV prevalence and behavioral studies in female sex workers in Togo: a decline in the prevalence between 2005 and 2011". The Pan African Medical Journal. 15: 62. doi:10.11604/pamj.2013.15.62.2457. PMC 3809967. PMID 24198868.
271. "Prostitutes leave Lome bases for Ghana". Modern Ghana. 5 February 2008. Retrieved 14 September 2015.

Bibliography

• The History of Prostitution in Ethiopia, RICHARD PANKHURST, Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (JULY 1974), pp. 159–178