Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States

The adoption of plug-in electric vehicles in the United States is supported by the American federal government, and several states and local governments. As of December 2020, cumulative sales in the U.S. totaled 1.79 million highway legal plug-in electric cars since 2010,[2] led by all-electric cars with more than 1 million units sold.[3] The American stock represented 20% of the global plug-in car fleet in use by the end of 2019, and the U.S. had the world's third largest stock of plug-in passenger cars after China (47%) and Europe (25%).[4]

U.S. all-time top-selling plug-in cars
(sales as of December 2019)[1]

Tesla Model 3 electric car (~300,471)

Tesla Model S electric car (157,992)

Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid (157,054)

The U.S. market share of plug-in electric passenger cars increased from 0.14% in 2011 to 0.75% in 2014, and fell to 0.66% in 2015.[5][6] Then climbed to 1.13% in 2017, and achieved a record take rate of 2.1% in 2018, but slightly declined to 1.9% in 2019.[7][8][9] California is the largest plug-in car regional market in the country, with almost 670,000 plug-in electric vehicles sold by the end of 2019.[10][11]

As of December 2019, the Tesla Model 3 all-electric car is the all-time best selling plug-in electric car with an estimated 300,471 units delivered, followed by the Tesla Model S electric car with about 157,992, and the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid with 157,054 units of both generations.[1] The Model S was the best selling plug-in car in the U.S. for three consecutive years, from 2015 to 2017,[12][13] and the Model 3 topped sales in 2018 and 2019.[14][15]

The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 granted federal tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric vehicles, which is worth between US$2,500 and US$7,500 depending on battery capacity.[16] As of 2014, Washington, D.C. and 37 states and had established incentives and tax or fee exemptions for BEVs and PHEVs, or utility-rate breaks, and other non-monetary incentives such as free parking and high-occupancy vehicle lane access.[17]

Government support

President Barack Obama behind the wheel of a new Chevrolet Volt during his tour of the General Motors Auto Plant in Hamtramck, Michigan in 2010

In his 2011 State of the Union address, President Barack Obama set the goal for the U.S. to become the first country to have one million electric vehicles on the road by 2015.[18] This goal was established based on forecasts made by the U.S. Department of Energy (DoE), using production capacity of PEV models announced to enter the U.S. market through 2015. The DoE estimated a cumulative production of 1,222,200 PEVS by 2015, and was based on manufacturer announcements and media reports accounting production goals for the Fisker Karma, Fisker Nina, Ford Transit Connect, Ford Focus Electric, Chevrolet Volt, Nissan Leaf, Smith Newton, Tesla Roadster, Tesla Model S and Th!nk City.[19]

Considering that actual PEV sales were lower than initially expected, as of early 2013, several industry observers have concluded that this goal was unattainable.[20][21][22][23] Obama's goal was achieved only in September 2018.[24][25]

San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom at the opening of the public plug-in charging stations in front of San Francisco City Hall in 2009

In 2008, San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom, San Jose Mayor Chuck Reed and Oakland Mayor Ron Dellums announced a nine-step policy plan for transforming the Bay Area into the "Electric Vehicle (EV) Capital of the U.S.".[26] Other local and state governments have also expressed interest in electric cars.[27]

Governor of California Jerry Brown issued an executive order in March 2012 that established the goal of getting 1.5 million zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) on California roads by 2025.[28][29][30]

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

President Barack Obama pledged US$2.4 billion in federal grants to support the development of next-generation electric vehicles and batteries.[31][32] $1.5 billion in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce highly efficient batteries and their components; up to $500 million in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce other components needed for electric vehicles, such as electric motors and other components; and up to $400 million to demonstrate and evaluate plug-in hybrids and other electric infrastructure concepts—like truck stop charging station, electric rail, and training for technicians to build and repair electric vehicles (green collar jobs).[33]

In March 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the U.S. Department of Energy announced the release of two competitive solicitations for up to $2 billion in federal funding for competitively awarded cost-shared agreements for manufacturing of advanced batteries and related drive components as well as up to $400 million for transportation electrification demonstration and deployment projects. This initiative aimed to help meet President Barack Obama's goal of putting one million plug-in electric vehicles on the road by 2015.[18][34]

Tax credits

Federal incentives

First the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric drive motor vehicles.[16] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new plug-in electric vehicle (PEV).[35]

President Bush with A123Systems CEO on the White House South Lawn examining a Toyota Prius converted to plug-in hybrid with Hymotion technology

As defined by the 2009 ACES Act, a PEV is a vehicle which draws propulsion energy from a traction battery with at least 5 kwh of capacity and uses an offboard source of energy to recharge such battery.[16] The tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth US$2,500 plus US$417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 5 kwh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed US$5,000. Therefore, the total amount of the credit, between US$2,500 and US$7,500, will vary depending on the capacity of the battery (4 to 16 kWh) used to power the vehicles.[36]

The qualified plug-in electric vehicle credit phases out for a plug-in manufacturer over the one-year period beginning with the second calendar quarter after the calendar quarter in which at least 200,000 qualifying plug-in vehicles from that manufacturer have been sold for use in the U.S. Cumulative sales started counting sales after December 31, 2009. After reaching the cap, qualifying PEVs for one quarter still earn the full credit, the second quarter after that quarter plug-in vehicles are eligible for 50% of the credit for six months, then 25% of the credit for another six months and finally the credit is phased out.[16] Both the Nissan Leaf electric vehicle and the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, launched in December 2010, are eligible for the maximum $7,500 tax credit.[37] The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, released in January 2012, is eligible for a US$2,500 tax credit due to its smaller battery capacity of 5.2 kWh.[38] All Tesla cars and the Chevrolet Bolts and BMW i3 BEV are eligible for the US$7,500 tax credit.

A 2016 study conducted by researchers from the University of California, Davis found that the federal tax credit was the reason behind more than 30% of the plug-in electric sales. The impact of the federal tax incentive is higher among owners of the Nissan Leaf, with up to 49% of sales attributable to the federal incentive. The study, based on a stated preference survey of more than 2,882 plug in vehicle owners in 11 states, also found that the federal tax credit shifts buyers from internal combustion engine vehicles to plug-in vehicles and advances the purchase timing of new vehicles by a year or more.[39]

In July 2018, Tesla Inc. was the first plug-in manufacturer to pass 200,000 sales and the full tax credit will be available until the end 2018, with the phase out beginning in January 2019.[40] General Motors combined sales of plug-in electric vehicles passed 200,000 units in November 2018. The full tax credit will be available until the end of March 2019 and thereafter reduces gradually until it is completely phase out beginning on April 1, 2020.[41][42] In order of cumulative sales, as of November 2018, Nissan has delivered 126,875 units, Ford 111,715, Toyota 93,011 and the BMW Group 79,679 plug-in electric cars.[43]

State incentives

Chevrolet Volt with California's HOV lane access green sticker

As of November 2014, 37 states and Washington, D.C. have established incentives and tax or fee exemptions for BEVs and PHEVs, or utility-rate breaks, and other non-monetary incentives such as free parking and high-occupancy vehicle lane access regardless of the number of occupants.[17] In California, for example, the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP) was established to promote the production and use of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs). Eligible vehicles include only new Air Resources Board-certified or approved zero-emission or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.[44] Among the eligible vehicles are neighborhood electric vehicles, battery electric, plug-in hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles including cars, trucks, medium- and heavy-duty commercial vehicles, and zero-emission motorcycles. Vehicles must be purchased or leased on or after March 15, 2010. Rebates initially of up to US$5,000 per light-duty vehicle, and later lowered to up to US$2,500, are available for individuals and business owners who purchase or lease new eligible vehicles. Certain zero-emission commercial vehicles are also eligible for rebates up to US$20,000.[45][46][47] California's zero-emission (ZEV) regulations are anticipated to result in 1.5 million electric vehicles on the road by 2025 ( i.e., 15% sales of total states in 2025); moreover, California's mixed incentives means to reach 40% of electric vehicle sales in the entire U.S.[36]

Electric vehicle purchases made in the U.S. are eligible for $2,500 to $7,500, depending on the make and model of the vehicle, in federal tax credit.[48]

The following table summarizes some of the state incentives:[49][50]

State incentives for plug-in electric vehicles[51]

State	Amount of incentive	Type of PEV/vehicle	Type of incentive	Carpool lane access	Comments
Arizona		BEVs	Lower vehicle licensing tax	Yes	Eligibility for PHEVs depends on the extent to which the vehicle is powered by electricity. Maximum of $75 available to individuals for installation of EV charging outlets.
California	up to $2,500	BEVs	Purchase rebate	Yes	Free access to HOVs through January 1, 2019, which also benefits natural gas vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.[52] The amount of subsidies received is limited by annual income as of March 29, 2016.
	up to $2,500	PHEVs	Purchase rebate	Yes	PHEV free access to HOV lanes until January 1, 2019.[53] The cap was originally for the first 70,000 applicants. The cap was later raised to 85,000 and the limit was reached in December 2015. Per SB-838, and effective as of September 13, 2016, the Green Clean Air Vehicle Decal limit imposed by AB 95 has been removed.[54]
	up to $1,500	Electric motorcycles and NEVs	Purchase rebate	Yes	All motorcycles have free access to HOV lanes.
Colorado	up to $6,000	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	No	Tax credit totaling 75 to 85% of the cost premium for a vehicle that uses or is converted to use an alternative fuel, is a hybrid electric vehicle or has its power source replaced with one that uses an alternative fuel. A 20% rebate also available for EV charger installation.[55]
Connecticut	up to $3,000	BEVs, PHEV	Rebate	No	CHEAPR provides up to $3,000 for fuel cell EV, EV or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. Rebates are offered on a first-come, first-served basis.
Delaware	up to $2,200	EV	Rebate	No	Customers with at a grid-integrated EV may qualify to receive kilowatt-hour credits for energy discharged to the grid from the EV's battery at the same rate that the customer pays to charge the battery.
District of Columbia		BEVs and PHEVs	Excise tax exemption and reduced registration fees	No	A tax credit up to 50% of the equipment costs for the purchase and installation of electric vehicle charging station, up to $1,000 per residential install.
Florida		BEVs and PHEVs		Yes	Access to HOVs through January 1, 2018 if displaying the EV decal. Florida Statutes protects consumers from additional charges from insurance providers from insuring electric vehicles.
Georgia	$0	ZEVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Tax credit of 20% of the cost of a zero emission vehicle up to $5,000 purchased before July 1, 2015. Plug-in hybrids were not eligible for this incentive.[56] The incentive removal reduced sales of small EVs but had little effect on large EVs.[57]
	up to $2,500	Alternative fuel conversion	Income tax credit	Yes	Tax credit of 10% of the conversion cost for a vehicle converted to run solely on an alternative fuel and meets the standards for a low-emission vehicle up to $2,500.[56]
	up to $20,000	Commercial AFVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Tax credit for new commercial medium-duty or heavy-duty AFVs or Medium-duty hybrid EVs that operate using at least 90% alternative fuel, expires June 30, 2017.[58]
Hawaii		BEVs and PHEVs	Parking	Yes	Carpool lane access and reduced rates for electric vehicle charging. EVs with EV license plates are exempt from certain parking fees charged by any non-federal government authorities.
Idaho		BEVs, PHEV	Inspection Exemption	No	EVs are exempt from state motor vehicle inspection and maintenance programs.
Illinois		BEVs, PHEVs and conversions	Inspection Exemption	No	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity are exempt from state motor vehicle emissions inspections; this was suspended in March 2015. Covered 80% of cost premium or electric conversion price, up to $4,000.
Indiana	up to $1,650	BEVs, PHEV		No	Credit to install residential charging station and free plug-in electric vehicle charging during off-peak hours until Jan. 31, 2017.
Louisiana	up to $3,000	BEVs, PHEVs and conversions	Inspection Exemption	No	Tax credit of 50% of cost premium for BEV/PHEV purchase, 50% of conversion cost, or a tax credit worth 10% of the cost of a new BEV/PHEV vehicle up to $3,000. This same credit also applies to charge station costs.
Maryland	up to $3,000	BEVs and PHEVs		Yes[59]	Plug-in EVs are eligible for an excise tax credit until July 1, 2020.[60] The state also offers a US$900 rebate for buying and installation of wall connectors for individuals; US$5,000 for business, or state or local governments; and US$7,000 for retail service station dealers.[61]
Massachusetts	up to $1,000	BEVs and PHEVs	Purchase rebate		Up to $1,000 rebate for purchasing PEVs, funds are limited.[62]
Michigan		BEVs, PHEV	Inspection exemption	No	Alternative fuel vehicles are exempt from emissions inspection requirements. Indiana Michigan Power, Consumers Energy and DTE Energy offer other incentives.
Minnesota		BEVs, PHEV		No	All public utilities must file a tariff that allows a customer to purchase electricity solely for the purpose of recharging an electric vehicle. The tariff must include either a time-of-day or off-peak rate.
Mississippi		BEVs, PHEV	Income tax credit	No	0% interest loans for public school districts and municipalities to purchase alternative fuel school buses and other motor vehicles, convert school buses and other motor vehicles to use alternative fuels, purchase alternative fuel equipment, and install fueling stations.
Missouri	up to $15,000	BEVs, PHEV		No	Tax credit for the cost of installing a qualified alternative fueling station, until Jan. 1, 2018, and are exempt from state emissions inspection requirements.
Montana	up to $500	Alternative fuel conversion	Income tax credit	No	Credit only available for conversion costs up to $500 or 50% of conversion cost. Includes electric car conversion.[63]
Nebraska		BEVs, PHEV	Loans	No	Provides low-cost loans for purchase of EVs, the conversion of conventional vehicles to operate on alternative fuels, and the construction or purchase of a fueling station or equipment.
Nevada		BEVs, PHEV		Yes	Exempt from emissions testing requirements and local public metered parking areas must have areas for EVs to park without paying a fee. Carpool lane access and reduced rates for electric vehicle charging.
New Hampshire	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
New Jersey	up to $5000	BEVs, PHEV	Purchase rebate + sales tax exemption	Yes	Sales tax exemption for qualifying BEVs only, not PHEVs. The Turnpike offers a 10% discount from off-peak toll rates on the New Jersey Turnpike for vehicles that have a fuel economy of 45 miles per gallon or higher.
New York		BEVs, PHEVs and HEVs		Yes	Plug-in electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles with a combined fuel economy rating of at least 45 mpg‑US (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg‑imp) and that also meet the California Air Resources Board SULEV emissions standard, are eligible for the Clean Pass Program. Eligible vehicles which display the Clean Pass vehicle sticker are allowed to use the Long Island Expressway HOV lanes, regardless of the number of occupants.[64] Drivers of qualified vehicles may also receive a 10% discount on established E-ZPass accounts with proof of registration.[65] A tax credit for 50 percent of the cost, up to $5,000, for the purchase and installation of a charging station until Dec. 31, 2017.
North Carolina		PHEV		Yes	Qualified PEVs are exempt from state emissions inspection requirements.
Ohio		EV		Yes	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity, propane, or natural gas are exempt from state vehicle emissions inspections after receiving a one-time verification inspection.
Oklahoma	75% cost		Income tax credit	No	A tax credit is available for up to 75 percent of the cost of installing charging stations.
Oregon		BEVs	Income tax credit	No	A tax credit for 25% of charging station costs, up to $750 (more for commercial use).
Pennsylvania	up to $2,000	BEVs and PHEVs	Purchase rebate	No	250 rebates to assist with the purchase of new EVs. As of June 24, 2015, 193 rebates remain.[66]
Rhode Island		PHEV	Inspection exemption	No	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity are exempt from state emissions control inspections.
South Carolina	up to $1,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	No	Tax credit equaling 20% of federal credit for PHEVs and BEVs.
Tennessee		BEVs and PHEVs	Rebate	Yes	Rebate is limited. HOV lane access.
Texas				No	No credits exist as of 2020.
Utah	up to $1,500	Conversions only	Income tax credit	Yes	Credit to convert a vehicle to run on propane, natural gas, or electricity. Allowed carpool lane access.
	up to $1,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Until Dec. 31, 2016
Virginia		BEVs and PHEVs		No	Alternative fuel and hybrid electric vehicles are exempt from emissions testing.
Washington		BEVs	Sales tax	No	Beginning on July 1, 2016, a sales tax exemption applies to the first US$32,000 of the selling price of a qualifying new plug-in electric car, which translates into a tax savings between US$2,600 to US$3,100 for plug-in car buyers depending on where the dealer is located within the state, as the sales tax varies by county. The incentive applies towards the purchase or lease of a new car all-electric vehicle, or a plug-in hybrid with at least 30 mi (48 km) of all-electric range – such as the Chevrolet Volt and the BMW i3 REx. The new law also raises the previous purchase price cap to US$42,500, which will allow buyers of the Chevrolet Bolt EV, the next generation Nissan Leaf, and the Tesla Model 3 – all with 200 mi (320 km) of electric range – to be eligible for the incentive.[67]
Washington, D.C.		BEVs	Sales tax	No	Vehicles that operate exclusively on electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, or propane are exempt from excise taxes.

New proposals

President Obama driving a Volt at the White House

Several separate initiatives have been pursued unsuccessfully at the federal level since 2011 to transform the tax credit into an instant cash rebate. The objective of these initiatives is to make new qualifying plug-in electric cars more accessible to buyers by making the incentive more effective. The rebate would be available at the point of sale allowing consumers to avoid a wait of up to a year to apply the tax credit against income tax returns.[68][69][70]

In March 2014, the Obama Administration included a provision in the FY 2015 Budget to increase the maximum tax credit for plug-in electric vehicles and other advanced vehicles from US$7,500 to US$10,000. The new maximum tax credit would not apply to luxury vehicles with a sales price of over US$45,000, such as the Tesla Model S and the Cadillac ELR, which would be capped at US$7,500.[71] In November 2017, House Republicans proposed scrapping the US$7,500 tax credit as part of a sweeping tax overhaul.[72]

Charging equipment

Until 2010 there was a federal tax credit equal to 50% of the cost to buy and install a home-based charging station with a maximum credit of US$2,000 for each station. Businesses qualified for tax credits up to US$50,000 for larger installations.[37][73] These credits expired on December 31, 2010, but were extended through 2013 with a reduced tax credit equal to 30% with a maximum credit of up to US$1,000 for each station for individuals and up to US$30,000 for commercial buyers.[74][75] In 2016, the Obama administration and several stake holders announced $4.5 billion in loan guarantees for public charge stations, along with other iniatives.[76]

EV Everywhere Challenge

On March 7, 2012, President Barack Obama launched the EV Everywhere Challenge as part of the U.S. Department of Energy's Clean Energy Grand Challenges, which seeks to solve some of the U.S. biggest energy challenges and make clean energy technologies affordable and accessible to the vast majority of American households and businesses. The EV Everywhere Challenge has the goal of advancing electric vehicle technologies to have the country, by 2022, to produce a five-passenger electric vehicle that would provide both a payback time of less than five years and the ability to be recharged quickly enough to provide enough range for the typical American driver.[77][78]

DoE graph showing how meeting EV Everywhere targets will significantly lower PEV 5-year cost of ownership (purchase cost plus fuel).[79]

In January 2013 the Department of Energy (DoE) published the "EV Everywhere Grand Challenge Blueprint," which set the technical targets of the PEV program in four areas: battery research and development; electric drive system research and development; vehicle lightweighting; and advanced climate control technologies. The DoE set several specific goals, established in consultation with stakeholders.[79] The key goals to be met over the next five years to make plug-in electric vehicles competitive with conventional fossil fuel vehicles are:

• Cutting battery costs from their current US$500/kWh to US$125/kWh
• Eliminating almost 30% of vehicle weight through lightweighting
• Reducing the cost of electric drive systems from US$30/kW to US$8/kW

The DoE aim is to level the purchase plus operating (fuel) cost of an all-electric vehicle with a 280 mi (450 km) range with the costs of an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle of similar size. The DoE expects than even before the latter goals are met, the 5-year cost of ownership of most plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and of all-electric vehicles with shorter ranges, such as 100 mi (160 km), will be comparable to the same cost of ICE vehicles of similar size.[79][80]

Energy Secretary Steven Chu announcing the new Workplace Charging Challenge at the 2013 Washington Auto Show

In order to achieve these goals, the DoE is providing up to US$120 million over the next five years to fund the new Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), a research center led by the Argonne National Laboratory in Chicago.[80][81] An initial progress report for the initiative was released in January 2014. Four results of the first year of the initiative were reported:[82]

• DOE research and development reduced the cost of electric drive vehicle batteries to US$325/ kWhr, 50% lower than 2010 costs.
• In the first year of the Workplace Charging Challenge, more than 50 U.S. employers joined the Challenge and pledged to provide charging access at more than 150 sites.
• DOE investments in EV Everywhere technology topped US$225 million in 2013, addressing key barriers to achieving the Grand Challenge.
• Consumer acceptance of electric vehicles grew: 97,000 plug-in electric vehicles were sold in 2013, nearly doubling 2012 sales.

Workplace Charging Challenge

In January 2013, during the Washington Auto Show, Secretary of Energy Steven Chu announced an initiative to expand the EV Everywhere program with the "Workplace Charging Challenge." This initiative is a plan to install more electric vehicle charging stations in workplace parking lots. There are 21 founding partners and ambassadors for the program, including Ford, Chrysler, General Motors, Nissan, Tesla Motors, 3M, Google, Verizon, Duke Energy, General Electric, San Diego Gas & Electric, Siemens, Plug In America, and the Rocky Mountain Institute. The initiative's target is to increase the number of U.S. employers offering workplace charging by tenfold in the next five years. Initially, the DoE will not provide funding for this initiative.[83][84]

U.S. military

The first six neighborhood electric vehicles delivered to the U.S. Army in January 2009 as part of its plan to lease more than 4,000 of the vehicles

The U.S. Army announced in 2009 that it will lease 4,000 Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) within three years. The Army plans to use NEVs at its bases for transporting people around the base, as well as for security patrols and maintenance and delivery services. The Army accepted its first six NEVs at Virginia's Fort Myer in March 2009 and will lease a total of 600 NEVs through the rest of the year, followed by the leasing of 1,600 NEVs for each of the following two years.[85]

Chevrolet Volt delivered as part of the U.S. Department of Defense and General Services Administration Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles Pilot project

U.S. Air Force officials announced, in August 2011, a plan to establish Los Angeles Air Force Base, California, as the first federal facility to replace 100% of its general purpose fleet with plug-in electric vehicles. As part of the program, all Air Force-owned and -leased general purpose fleet vehicles on the base will be replaced with PEVs. There are approximately 40 eligible vehicles, ranging from passenger sedans to two-ton trucks and shuttle buses. The replacement PEVs include all-electric, plug-in hybrids, and extended-range electric vehicles. Electrification of Los Angeles AFB's general purpose fleet is the first step in a Department of Defense effort to establish strategies for large-scale integration of PEVs.[86]

By May 2013, it was announced that, as part of a test program created in January 2013, 500 plug-in electric vehicles with vehicle-to-ground (V2G) technology would be in use at six military bases, purchased using an investment of $20 million. If the program succeeds, there will be 3,000 V2G vehicles in 30 bases.[87]

Safety laws

Due to the low noise typical of electric vehicles at low speeds, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ruled that all hybrids and EVs must emit artificial noise when idling, accelerating to 19 mph (30 km/h) or going in reverse by September 2019.[88][89]

U.S. commitments to the 2015 Paris Agreement

As a signatory party to the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement, the United States government committed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, among others, from the transportation sector.[90] Already in 2015, the Federal government had set targets to reduce its own carbon footprint 30% by 2025, and acquire 20% of all new passenger vehicles as zero emission (all-electric of fuel cell) or plug-in hybrid by 2020, and 50% by 2025.[90][91] These goals are part of the U.S. nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to achieve the worldwide emissions reduction goal set by the Paris Agreement.[90][92]

On June 1, 2017, President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation.[93]

On November 5, 2020, then President-elect Joe Biden announced that his administration will reverse President Donald Trump's United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement by re-entering the United States into the Paris Agreement to continue to reiterated commitment in the agreement and move forward with the proposed Green New Deal legislation, to fight the global climate change problems as soon as Biden is inaugurated into office on January 20th, 2021, succeeding incumbent Trump as President of the United States. Joe Biden declines to endorse the full Green New Deal legislation proposed by members of his party but promises to introduce and transition to more energy-efficient buildings, increase generation of renewable energy by gradually moving away from the dependence of fracking and fossil fuels as energy sources in the US, and introduce more electric vehicles to all 50 US states. The Biden Administration expects 50% of all vehicles sold in the US to be electric vehicles by 2025 and expects fossil fuel vehicles to be banned and gradually phased out from the US around the 2030-2035 timeframe.[94][95][96]

Operating costs and fuel economy

The following table shows the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) official ratings for fuel economy (miles per gallon gasoline equivalent) and EPA's estimated out-of-pocket fuel costs for all plug-in electric passenger vehicles rated by EPA in the United States since 2010 up to December 2016.[97][98][99]

Fuel efficiency and out-of-pocket fuel costs for all passenger PEVs rated by EPA between 2010 and December 2016⁽¹⁾
(Fuel economy and operating costs as displayed in the Monroney label and the fueleconomy.gov website for model years 2011 through 2017)

Vehicle	Model year	Operating mode (AER)	EPA fuel economy ratings			Cost to drive 25 miles	Annual fuel cost^(2) (15,000 mi)	Notes
			Combined	City	Highway
Hyundai Ioniq Electric[97][100]	2017	All-electric (124 mi)	136 mpg-e (25 kW·h/100 mi)	150 mpg-e (22 kW·h/100 mi)	122 mpg-e (28 kW·h/100 mi)	$0.81	$500	The 2017 Hyundai Ioniq Electric is the most fuel efficient EPA-certified vehicle of all fuel types considered in all years,[101]
Toyota Prius Prime[102]	2017	Electricity (25 mi)	133 mpg‑e (25.9 kW⋅h/100 mi)	-	-	-	-	The 2017 Prius Prime is the most energy-efficient vehicle with a gasoline engine in all-electric mode (EV mode). The combined gasoline/electricity rating is not available yet. The Prime runs entirely on electricity in EV mode in more situations.[103]
		Gasoline only	54 mpg	55 mpg/ 53 mpg	-	-
BMW i3 (60 A·h)[99][104]	2014/15/16	All-electric (81 mi)	124 mpg-e (27 kW-hrs/100 mi)	137 mpg-e (25 kW-hrs/100 mi)	111 mpg-e (30 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.88	$500	The 2014/15/16 BMW i3 was the most fuel efficient EPA-certified vehicle of all fuel types considered in all years until November 2017.[105]
Scion iQ EV[106]	2013	All-electric (38 mi)	121 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi)	138 mpg-e (24 kW-hrs/100 mi)	105 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.84	$500	The iQ EV is only available in limited numbers for special fleet use, such as carsharing programs.[107][108][109]
Chevrolet Bolt EV[110]	2017	All-electric (238 mi)	119 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi)	128 mpg-e (16.7 kW⋅h/100 km)	110 mpg-e (19 kW⋅h/100 km)	$0.92	$550
Chevrolet Spark EV[111]	2014/15/16	All-electric (82 mi)	119 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi)	121 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi)	138 mpg-e (24 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.92	$550
BMW i3 (94 A·h)[112]	2017	All-electric (114 mi)	118 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi)	129 mpg-e	106 mpg-e	$0.94	$550
Honda Fit EV[113]	2013/14	All-electric (82 mi)	118 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi)	132 mpg-e (26 kW-hrs/100 mi)	105 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.94	$550
BMW i3 REx (60 A·h)[99][114]	2014/15/16	Electricity only (72 mi)	117 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi)	97 mpg‑e (35 kW⋅h/100 mi)	79 mpg‑e (44 kW⋅h/100 mi)	$0.94	$650	The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid while CARB as a range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx).[104][115][116] The 2014/15 i3 REx is the most fuel efficient EPA-certified vehicle with a gasoline engine ever with a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 88 mpg-e (city 97 mpg-e/hwy 79 mpg-e).[117]
		Gasoline only (78 mi)	39 mpg	41 mpg	37 mpg	$1.77
Volkswagen e-Golf[98][118]	2015/16	All-electric (83 mi)	116 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi)	126 mpg-e (27 kW-hrs/100 mi)	105 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.88	$550
Fiat 500e[119]	2013/14/15	All-electric (87 mi)	116 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi)	122 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi)	108 mpg-e (31 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.88	$550
Nissan Leaf (24 kW-hr)[120]	2013/14/15/16	All-electric (84 mi)	114 mpg-e (30 kW-hrs/100 mi)	126 mpg-e (27 kW-hrs/100 mi)	101 mpg-e (33 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.89	$550	The 2016 model year Leaf correspond to the variant with the 24 kW-hr battery pack.
Honda Accord PHEV[121]	2014	Electricity and gasoline (13 mi)	115 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.36	$950	The first 13 mi it has a combined rating of 115 mpg-e. After the first 13 mi the car functions like a regular hybrid.[99] The Accord has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 57 mpg-e.[122]
		Gasoline only	46 mpg	47 mpg	46 mpg
Nissan Leaf (30 kW-hr)[98][120]	2016	All-electric (107 mi)	112 mpg-e (30 kW-hrs/100 mi)	124 mpg-e (27 kW-hrs/100 mi)	101 mpg-e (33 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.90	$550	Model with the 30 kW-hr battery pack.
Mitsubishi i[123]	2012/13/14/16	All-electric (62 mi)	112 mpg-e (30 kW-hrs/100 mi)	126 mpg-e (27 kW-hrs/100 mi)	99 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.90	$550
Fiat 500e[124]	2016	All-electric (84 mi)	112 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi)	121 mpg-e (28 kWh/100 mi)	103 mpg-e (33 kWh/100 mi)	$0.90	$550
BMW i3 REx (94 A·h)[112]	2017	Electricity only (97 mi)	111 mpg-e (30 kWh/100 mi)	-	-	-	$650	The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid while CARB as a range-extended battery-electric vehicle (BEVx).
		Gasoline only (83 mi)	35 mpg	-	-	-
Smart electric drive[125]	2013/14/15/16	All-electric (68 mi)	107 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi)	122 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi)	93 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.96	$600	Third generation model. Ratings and costs are for both convertible and coupe models.
Chevrolet Volt (second generation)[126][127]	2016/17	Electricity only (53 mi)	106 mpg-e (31 kW-hrs/100 mi)	113 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi)	99 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.01	$650	The 2016 Volt has a combined gasoline/electricity fuel economy of 77 mpg-e (city 82 mpg-e/ hwy 72 mpg-e).[117] It uses regular gasoline.
		Gasoline only	42 mpg	43 mpg	42 mpg	$1.37
Kia Soul EV[98][128]	2015/16	All-electric (93 mi)	105 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi)	120 mpg-e (28 kW-hrs/100 mi)	92 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.96	$600	The Soul EV has the largest all-electric range in city driving of its class, with 104 mi (167 km).[129]
Ford Focus Electric[130]	2012/13/14/15/16	All-electric (76 mi)	105 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi)	110 mpg-e (31 kW-hrs/100 mi)	99 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$0.96	$600
BMW ActiveE[131]	2011	All-electric (94 mi)	102 mpg-e (33 kW-hrs/100 mi)	107 mpg‑e (32 kW⋅h/100 mi)	96 mpg‑e (36 kW⋅h/100 mi)	$0.99	$600
Nissan Leaf[132]	2011/12	All-electric (73 mi)	99 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi)	106 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi)	92 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.02	$600
Hyundai Sonata PHEV[133]	2016	Electricity and gasoline (27 mi)	99mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.10	$950	During the first 27 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 27 mi.[133]
		Gasoline only	40 mpg	-	-	$2.18
Chevrolet Volt[134]	2013/14	Electricity only (38 mi)	98 mpg-e (35 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.14	$800	The 2013/14 Volt has a combined gasoline/electricity rating of 62 mpg-e (city 63 mpg-e/hwy 61 mpg-e) and uses premium gas.[117]
		Gasoline only	37 mpg	35 mpg	40 mpg	$1.86
Ford Fusion Energi[135]	2017	Electricity and gasoline (22 mi)	97 mpg-e (35 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.16	$750	The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 21 mi.[135]
		Gasoline only	42 mpg	-	-	$1.37
Tesla Model S[99][136]	2013/14	All-electric (208 mi)	95 mpg-e (35 kW-hrs/100 mi)	94 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 mi)	97 mpg-e (35 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.05	$650	Model with 60 kWh battery pack
Toyota Prius PHV[137]	2012/13/14	Electricity and gasoline (11 mi)	95 mpg-e (29 kW-hrs/100 mi plus 0.2 gallons/100 mi)	-	-	$1.43	$900	After the first 11 mi the car functions like a regular Prius hybrid The 2012/14 Prius has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 58 mpg-e (city 59 mpg-e/hwy 56 mpg-e).[117]
		Gasoline only	50 mpg	51 mpg	49 mpg	$1.74
Chevrolet Volt[138]	2011/12	Electricity only (35 mi)	94 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 mi)	95 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 mi)	93 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.08	$1,000	Both model year 2011 and 2012 have the same operating costs, but the 2011 Volt has a rating of 93 mpg-e for combined driving in all-electric mode.
		Gasoline only	37 mpg	35 mpg	40 mpg	$2.57
Tesla Model S[139]	2013	All-electric (139 mi)	94 mpg-e (36 kW-hrs/100 mi)	93 mpg‑e (37 kW⋅h/100 mi)	96 mpg‑e (36 kW⋅h/100 mi)	$1.08	$650	Model with 40 kWh battery pack. This model was officially rated by the EPA but Tesla canceled its production due to lack of demand.[140]
Tesla Model X AWD – 90D[141]	2016	All-electric (257 mi)	92 mpg-e (34 kW-hrs/100 mi)	90 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi)	94 mpg-e (32 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.11	$650	Model with 90kWh battery pack
Tesla Model X AWD – P90D[141]	2016	All-electric (250 mi)	89 mpg-e (38 kW-hrs/100 mi)	89 mpg-e (38 kW-hrs/100 mi)	90 mpg-e (38 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.14	$700	Model with 90kWh battery pack
Tesla Model S[136]	2012/13/14	All-electric (265 mi)	89 mpg-e (38 kW-hrs/100 mi)	88 mpg-e (38 kW-hrs/100 mi)	90 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.14	$700	Model with 85kWh battery pack
Ford C-Max Energi[142][143] Ford Fusion Energi[142][143]	2013/16	Electricity and gasoline (20 mi)	88 mpg-e (37 kW-hrs/100 mi)	95 mpg‑e (36 kW⋅h/100 mi)	81 mpg‑e (42 kW⋅h/100 mi)	$1.36	$1,050	The Energi did not use any gasoline for the first 20 mi in EPA tests, but depending on the driving style, the car may use both gasoline and electricity during EV mode. The Energi models have a combined EV/hybrid operation rating of 51 mpg-e (city 55 mpg-e/hwy 46 mpg-e).[117]
		Gasoline only	38 mpg	40 mpg	36 mpg	$2.29
Smart electric drive[125]	2011	All-electric (63 mi)	87 mpg-e (39 kW-hrs/100 mi)	94 mpg‑e (37 kW⋅h/100 mi)	79 mpg‑e (44 kW⋅h/100 mi)	$1.17	$700	Second generation model. Ratings are costs for both cabriolet and coupe models.
Audi A3 e-tron ultra[144]	2016	Electricity only (17 mi)	86 mpg-e (38 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.44	$1,000	During the first 17 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 17 mi.[144]
		Gasoline only	39 mpg	-	-	$2.04
Cadillac ELR[145]	2016	Electricity only (40 mi)	85 mpg-e (39 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.17	$950
		Gasoline only	32 mpg	-	-	$2.48
Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive[99][146]	2014/15/16	All-electric (87 mi)	84 mpg-e (40 kW-hrs/100 mi)	85 mpg-e (40 kW-hrs/100 mi)	83 mpg-e (41 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.20	$700
Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid[147]	2017	Electricity only (33 mi)	84 mpg-e (40 kWh/100 mi)	-	-	$1.73	$900	During the first 33 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 33 mi.[147]
		Gasoline only	32 mpg	-	-	$1.83
Audi A3 e-tron[144]	2016	Electricity only (16 mi)	83 mpg-e (40 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.60	$1,100	During the first 16 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 16 mi.[144]
		Gasoline only	35 mpg	-	-	$2.27
Cadillac ELR[148]	2014/15	Electricity only (37 mi)	82 mpg-e (41 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.23	$1,100	The 2014 ELR has a combined EV/gasoline rating of 54 mpg-e (city 54 mpg-e/hwy 55 mpg-e).[117]
		Gasoline only	33 mpg	31 mpg	35 mpg	$2.89
Cadillac ELR Sport[145]	2016	Electricity only (36 mi)	80 mpg-e (43 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.29	$1,050
		Gasoline only	30 mpg	-	-	$2.65
Toyota RAV4 EV[99][149]	2012	All-electric (103 mi)	76 mpg-e (44 kW-hrs/100 mi)	78 mpg-e (43 kW-hrs/100 mi)	74 mpg-e (46 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.32	$800
BMW i8[99][150]	2014/15	Electricity and gasoline (15 mi)	76 mpg-e (43 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$2.19	$1,550	The i8 does not run on 100% electricity as it consumes 0.1 gallons per 100 mi in EV mode (all-electric range = 0 mi) The i8 has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 37 mpg-e.[122]
		Gasoline only	28 mpg	28 mpg	29 mpg	$3.40
Coda[151]	2012/13	All-electric (88 mi)	73 mpg-e (46 kW-hrs/100 mi)	77 mpg-e (44 kW-hrs/100 mi)	68 mpg-e (50 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.38	$850
BMW 330e[152]	2016	Electricity and gasoline (14 mi)	72 mpg-e (47 kWh/100 mi)	-	-	$1.74	$1,050	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 14 mi.[152] Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	31 mpg	-	-	$2.02
Porsche 918 Spyder[153]	2015	Electricity only (12 mi)	67 mpg-e (50 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.50	$2,100
		Gasoline only	22 mpg	-	-	$4.33
BYD e6[154]	2012	All-electric (122 mi)	62 mpg-e (54 kW-hrs/100 mi)	60 mpg-e (56 kW-hrs/100 mi)	64 mpg-e (52 kW-hrs/100 mi)	$1.62	$950
BMW 740e iPerformance[155]	2017	Electricity only (14 mi)	64 mpg-e (52 kWh/100 mi)	-	-	$2.03	$1,350	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 14 mi.[155]
		Gasoline only	27 mpg	-	-	$2.48
BMW X5 xDrive40e[156]	2016	Electricity only (14 mi)	56 mpg-e (59 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$2.45	$1,700	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 14 mi.[156]
		Gasoline only	24 mpg	-	-	$3.31
Mercedes-Benz S 500 e[157]	2015	Electricity only (14 mi)	58 mpg-e (59 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$2.34	$1,750	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The all-electric range varies between 0 and 12 mi.[157]
		Gasoline only	26 mpg	-	-	$3.06
Fisker Karma[158]	2012	Electricity only (33 mi)	54 mpg-e (62 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$1.86	$1,750
		Gasoline only	20 mpg	20 mpg	21 mpg	$4.76
Volvo XC90 T8[159]	2016	Electricity and gasoline (14 mi)	53 mpg-e (58 kWh/100 mi)	-	-	$2.19	$1,400	During the first 14 mi uses some gasoline. The actual all-electric range is between 0 and 13 mi.[159] Premium gasoline.
		Gasoline only	25 mpg	-	-	$2.51
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid[160]	2014	Electricity and gasoline (16 mi)	50 mpg-e (52 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$3.49	$1,850	The all-electric range is between 0 to 15 mi.[160] The S E-Hybrid has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 31 mpg-e.[122]
		Gasoline only	25 mpg	23 mpg	29 mpg	$3.81
Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid[161]	2015	Electricity and gasoline (14 mi)	47 mpg-e (69 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$2.07	$2,100
		Gasoline only	22 mpg	-	-	$4.33
McLaren P1[99][162]	2014	Electricity and gasoline (19 mi)	18 mpg-e (25 kW-hrs/100 mi)	-	-	$5.38	$3,200	The P1 does not run on 100% electricity as it consumes 4.8 gallons per 100 mi in EV mode (all-electric range = 0 mi)[162] The P1 has a rating for combined EV/hybrid operation of 17 mpg-e.[122]
		Gasoline only	17 mpg	16 mpg	20 mpg	$5.60
Notes: (1) In November 2010, EPA introduced MPGe as comparison metric on its new sticker for fuel economy for the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt.[163][164] Before, the EPA rating for on board energy efficiency for electric vehicles was expressed as kilowatt-hour per 100 miles.[165][166] The window sticker of the 2009 Mini E showed an energy consumption of 33 kW-hrs/100 mi in the city and 36 kW-hrs/100 mi on the highway (equivalent to 102 mpg city and 94 mpg on the highway).[165] The 2009 Tesla Roadster was rated 32 kW-hrs/100 mi in city and 33 kW-hrs/100 mi on the highway (equivalent to 105 mpg city and 102 mpg highway).[167] (2) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. Values rounded to the nearest $50. Electricity cost of US$0.12/kw-hr, premium gasoline price of US$3.81 per gallon (used by the Volt, Karma, BMW i3 REx, Mercedes S500e, McLaren P1 and all Porsche models), and regular gasoline price of US$3.48 per gallon (as of 12 March 2014). Conversion 1 gallon of gasoline=33.7 kW-hr.

Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions

Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants.[168] In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[168][169]

EPA estimates

Several Nissan Leafs, Chevrolet Volts and Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrids charging at a parking lot reserved for plug-in electric vehicles in California

The following table compares tailpipe and upstream CO
2 emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market. Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle, and for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine. These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends." All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city and 45% highway driving.[122]

For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug-in hybrids. Some, like the Chevrolet Volt, can operate in all-electric mode without using gasoline, and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, for both, electric only and blended EV modes. Since all-electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, the utility factor applies only to plug-in hybrids. The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market, and EPA's best estimate of the CO
2 tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs.[122]

In order to account for the upstream CO
2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity, and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO
2/kWh in California to 986 g CO
2/kWh in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO
2/kWh.[122]

Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO
2 emissions⁽¹⁾ estimated by EPA
for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market[122]

Vehicle	Overall fuel economy (mpg-e)	Utility factor^(2) (share EV miles)	Tailpipe CO 2 (g/mi)	Tailpipe + total upstream CO 2
				Low (g/mi)	Avg (g/mi)	High (g/mi)
BMW i3	124	1	0	93	175	266
Chevrolet Spark EV	119	1	0	97	181	276
Honda Fit EV	118	1	0	99	185	281
Fiat 500e	116	1	0	101	189	288
Nissan Leaf	114	1	0	104	194	296
Mitsubishi i	112	1	0	104	195	296
Smart electric drive	107	1	0	109	204	311
Ford Focus Electric	105	1	0	111	208	316
Tesla Model S (60 kWh)	95	1	0	122	229	348
Tesla Model S (85 kWh)	89	1	0	131	246	374
BMW i3 REx^(3)	88	0.83	40	134	207	288
Mercedes-Benz B-Class ED	84	1	0	138	259	394
Toyota RAV4 EV	76	1	0	153	287	436
BYD e6	63	1	0	187	350	532
Chevrolet Volt	62	0.66	81	180	249	326
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid	58	0.29	133	195	221	249
Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid	57	0.33	130	196	225	257
Cadillac ELR	54	0.65	91	206	286	377
Ford C-Max Energi	51	0.45	129	219	269	326
Ford Fusion Energi	51	0.45	129	219	269	326
BMW i8	37	0.37	198	303	351	404
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid	31	0.39	206	328	389	457
McLaren P1	17	0.43	463	617	650	687
Average gasoline car	24.2	0	367	400	400	400
Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid[99][122]

2012 study

The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug-in car batteries from the perspective of the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region. The study used the Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis baseline, and electric-utility emissions are based on EPA's 2009 estimates. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, hydroelectric or renewable sources, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less CO
2-e equivalent emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway driving fuel economy of 30 mpg_‑US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg_‑imp). In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg_‑imp).[170][171]

The study concluded that for 45% of the U.S. population, a plug-in electric car will generate lower CO
2 equivalent emissions than a gasoline-powered car capable of combined 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg_‑imp), such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c. The study also found that for 37% of the population, the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline-powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of 41 to 50 mpg_‑US (5.7 to 4.7 L/100 km; 49 to 60 mpg_‑imp), such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h. Only 18% of the population lives in areas where the power-supply is more dependent on burning carbon, and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of 31 to 40 mpg_‑US (7.6 to 5.9 L/100 km; 37 to 48 mpg_‑imp), such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus.[171][172][173] The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug-in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile, and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces CO
2 emissions equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at 33 mpg_‑US (7.1 L/100 km).[170]

The following table shows a representative sample of cities within each of the three categories of emissions intensity used in the UCS study, showing the corresponding miles per gallon equivalent for each city as compared to the greenhouse gas emissions of a gasoline-powered car:

Regional comparison of full life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric vehicles expressed in terms of miles per gallon of a gasoline-powered car with equivalent emissions[170][172][173]
Rating scale by emissions intensity expressed as miles per gallon	City	PEV well-to-wheels carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2-e) emissions per year expressed as mpg US	Percent reduction in CO 2-e emissions compared with 27 mpg US average new compact car	Combined EPA's rated fuel economy and GHG emissions for reference gasoline-powered car[174]
Best LowestCO 2-e emissions equivalent to over 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km)	Juneau, Alaska	112 mpg‑US (2.10 L/100 km)	315%	2012 Toyota Prius/Prius c 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km)
	San Francisco	79 mpg‑US (3.0 L/100 km)	193%
	New York City	74 mpg‑US (3.2 L/100 km)	174%
	Portland, Oregon	73 mpg‑US (3.2 L/100 km)	170%	Greenhouse gas emissions (grams/mile)
	Boston	67 mpg‑US (3.5 L/100 km)	148%	Tailpipe CO 2	Upstream GHG
	Washington, D.C.	58 mpg‑US (4.1 L/100 km)	115%	178 g/mi (111 g/km)	44 g/mi (27 g/km)
Better Moderate CO 2-e emissions equivalent to between 41 mpg‑US (5.7 L/100 km) to 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km)	Phoenix, Arizona	48 mpg‑US (4.9 L/100 km)	78%	2012 Honda Civic Hybrid 44 mpg‑US (5.3 L/100 km)
	Miami	47 mpg‑US (5.0 L/100 km)	74%
	Houston	46 mpg‑US (5.1 L/100 km)	70%	Greenhouse gas emissions (grams/mile)
	Columbus, Ohio	41 mpg‑US (5.7 L/100 km)	52%	Tailpipe CO 2	Upstream GHG
	Atlanta	41 mpg‑US (5.7 L/100 km)	52%	202 g/mi (125 g/km)	50 g/mi (31 g/km)
Good Highest CO 2-e emissions equivalent to between 31 mpg‑US (7.6 L/100 km) to 40 mpg‑US (5.9 L/100 km)	Detroit	38 mpg‑US (6.2 L/100 km)	41%	2012 Chevrolet Cruze 30 mpg‑US (7.8 L/100 km)
	Des Moines, Iowa	37 mpg‑US (6.4 L/100 km)	37%
	St. Louis, Missouri	36 mpg‑US (6.5 L/100 km)	33%	Greenhouse gas emissions (grams/mile)
	Wichita, Kansas	35 mpg‑US (6.7 L/100 km)	30%	Tailpipe CO 2	Upstream GHG
	Denver	33 mpg‑US (7.1 L/100 km)	22%	296 g/mi (184 g/km)	73 g/mi (45 g/km)
Source: Union of Concerned Scientists, 2012.[170] Notes: The Nissan Leaf is the baseline car for the assessment, with an energy consumption rated by EPA at 34 kWh/100 mi or 99 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (2.4 L/100 km) combined. The ratings are based on a region's mix of electricity sources and its average emissions intensity over the course of a year. In practice the electricity grid is very dynamic, with the mix of power plants constantly changing in response to hourly, daily and seasonal electricity demand, and availability of electricity resources.

2014 update

In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report. The 2014 analysis found that 60% of Americans, up from 45% in 2009, live in regions where an all-electric car produce fewer CO
2 equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid. The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement. First, electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis. The 2014 study used electric-utility emissions based on EPA's 2010 estimates, but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5% from 2010 to 2014, actual efficiency in 2014 is expected to be better than estimated in the UCS study. Second, electric vehicles have become more efficient, as the average model year 2013 all-electric vehicle used 0.325 kWh/mile, representing a 5% improvement over 2011 models. The Nissan Leaf, used as the reference model for the baseline of the 2012 study, was upgraded in model year 2013 to achieve a rating of 0.30 kWh/mile, a 12% improvement over the 2011 model year model rating of 0.34 kWh/mile. Also, some new models are cleaner than the average, such as the BMW i3, which is rated at 0.27 kWh by the EPA. An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline-powered car with about 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km), up from 39 mpg_‑US (6.0 L/100 km) for the average electric car in the 2012 study. In states with a cleaner mix generation, the gains were larger. The average all-electric car in California went up to 95 mpg_‑US (2.5 L/100 km) equivalent from 78 mpg_‑US (3.0 L/100 km) in the 2012 study. States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag, such as Colorado, where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a 34 mpg_‑US (6.9 L/100 km; 41 mpg_‑imp) gasoline-powered car. The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoption is concentrated in the states with cleaner power.[175][176]

2015 study

Change from 2009 to 2012 of the percentage of Americans that live in regions where powering an electric vehicle on the regional electricity grid produces lower global warming emissions than a gasoline car expressed in terms of combined city/highway fuel economy rating. Source: Union of Concerned Scientists.[177]

External media
Images
2015 vehicle emissions
Video
Video on YouTube

In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life-cycle, cradle-to-grave analysis. The two BEVs modeled, midsize and full-size, are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015, the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all-electric cars representative of those sold today, on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline-powered vehicles, despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing. Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold, excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving. The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km) in regions covering two-thirds of the U.S. population, up from 45% in 2009. Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015, the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg_‑US (3.5 L/100 km) fuel economy rating. The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV-related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012. Electricity generation has been getting cleaner, as coal-fired generation has declined while lower-carbon alternatives have increased. In addition, electric cars are becoming more efficient. For example, the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt, have undergone improvements to increase their efficiencies compared to the original models launched in 2010, and other even more efficient BEV models, such as the most lightweight and efficient BMW i3, have entered the market.[177]

National Bureau of Economic Research

One criticism to the UCS analysis and several other that have analyze the benefits of PEVs is that these analysis were made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.[178][179] An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The study used emissions and consumption data for 2007 through 2009, and used the specifications for the Chevrolet Volt (all-electric range of 35 mi (56 km)). The analysis found that marginal emission rates are more than three times as large in the Upper Midwest compared to the Western U.S., and within regions, rates for some hours of the day are more than twice those for others.[179] Applying the results of the marginal analysis to plug-in electric vehicles, the NBER researchers found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO
2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. However, in other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand. This pattern of fuel shifting explains why emission rates tend to be higher at night and lower during periods of peak demand in the morning and evening.[179]

Environmental footprint

In February 2014, the Automotive Science Group (ASG) published the result of a study conducted to assess the life-cycle of over 1,300 automobiles across nine categories sold in North America. The study found that among advanced automotive technologies, the Nissan Leaf holds the smallest life-cycle environmental footprint of any model year 2014 automobile available in the North American market with minimum four-person occupancy. The study concluded that the increased environmental impacts of manufacturing the battery electric technology is more than offset with increased environmental performance during operational life. For the assessment, the study used the average electricity mix of the U.S. grid in 2014.[180] In the 2014 mid-size cars category, the Leaf also ranked as the best all-around performance, best environmental and best social performance. The Ford Focus Electric, within the 2014 compact cars category, ranked as the best all-around performance, best environmental and best social performance. The Tesla Model S ranked as the best environmental performance in the 2014 full-size cars category.[181]

Charging infrastructure

As of February 2020, the United States had 84,866 charging points across the country, up from 19,472 in December 2013.[182][183] California led with 26,219 stations, followed by New York with 4,541. There were 592 CHAdeMO quick charging stations across the country by April 2014.[184]

Top fifteen states ranked by number of public charging points available in the United States (as of February 2020)[182]
State	Number of points	State	Number of points
California	26,219	Colorado	2,440
New York	4,541	Massachusetts	2,376
Texas	4,497	Missouri	2,029
Florida	4,096	Illinois	1,933
Washington	3,016	Maryland	1,919
Georgia	2,910	Total U.S.	84,866
Note: The U.S. DoE Alternative Fuels Data Center counts electric charging units or points, or EVSE, as one for each outlet available, and does not include residential electric charging infrastructure. Number of public charging points as of 2 February 2020.[182]

Smart Fortwo electric drive on service for the Car2Go carsharing service in San Diego, California

Car2Go made San Diego the only North American city with an all-electric carsharing fleet when it launched service in 2011. As of March 2016, the carsharing service has 40,000 members and 400 all-electric Smart EDs in operation. However, due to lack of enough charging infrastructure Car2Go decided to replace all of its all-electric car fleet with gasoline-powered cars starting on 1 May 2016. When the carsharing service started Car2Go expected 1,000 charging stations to be deployed around the city, but only 400 were in place by early 2016. As a result, an average of 20% of the carsharing fleet is unavailable at any given time because the cars are either being charged or because they don't have enough electricity in them to be driven. Also, many of the company's San Diego members say they often worry their Car2Go will run out of charge before they finish their trip.[185] Car2Go merged with ReachNow into Share Now, which closed its North American operations in February 2020.

Charging stations by state

EV Charging by State

State	Number of public EV charging stations[186]
Alabama	640
Alaska	94
Arizona	1,760
Arkansas	448
California	20,813
Colorado	2,249
Connecticut	1,061
Delaware	207
District of Columbia	461
Florida	3,513
Georgia	2,598
Hawaii	545
Idaho	319
Illinois	1,934
Indiana	1,243
Iowa	672
Kansas	734
Kentucky	592
Louisiana	359
Maine	618
Maryland	2,047
Massachusetts	2,098
Michigan	2,051
Minnesota	1,677
Mississippi	297
Missouri	1,268
Montana	346
Nebraska	307
Nevada	1,049
New Hampshire	315
New Jersey	1,451
New Mexico	502
New York	4,160
North Carolina	2,005
North Dakota	162
Ohio	1,931
Oklahoma	690
Oregon	2,116
Pennsylvania	1,961
Rhode Island	207
South Carolina	679
South Dakota	338
Tennessee	1,472
Texas	4,379
Utah	1,364
Vermont	694
Virginia	2,214
Washington	3,449
West Virginia	332
Wisconsin	1,233
Wyoming	285

Plug-in Electric Vehicle Readiness Index

Portland, Oregon ranks at the top of the list of major American cities that are the most ready to accommodate PEVs. Shown a BMW i3 charging at Portland Electric Avenue.

Researchers from the Indiana University School of Public and Environmental Affairs developed an index that identifies and ranks the municipal plug-in electric vehicle readiness ("PEV readiness"). The evaluation ranked the U.S. 25 largest cities by population along with five other large cities that have been included in other major PEV studies. The rankings also included the largest cities in states that joined California zero-emissions vehicle goal. A total of 36 major U.S. cities were included in the study. The evaluation found that Portland, Oregon ranks at the top of the list of major American cities that are the most ready to accommodate plug-in electric vehicles.[187]

Readiness is the degree to which adoption of electric vehicles is supported, as reflected in the presence of various types of policy instruments, infrastructure development, municipal investments in PEV technology, and participation in relevant stakeholder coalitions. The study also compares cities within states that participate in the Zero Emission Vehicle program, with those that do not, with the objective to understand whether participation in that program has a meaningful impact on PEV readiness.[187][188]

In order to accelerate the adoption of plug-in electric vehicles (PEV), many municipalities, along with their parent states, offer a variety of benefits to owners and operators of PEVs to make PEV adoption easier and more affordable. All six cities in the top of the ranking offer purchase incentives for PEVs and charging equipment. Four of the six offer time-of-use electricity rates, which makes overnight charging more affordable. The top-ranking cities also score well in categories such as public charging station density, special parking privileges, access to high occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, and streamlined processes for installing charging equipment. Those services and incentives are largely absent from the bottom six cities.[187]

The following is the full ranking of the 36 U.S. cities in 25 states included in the evaluation of PEV readiness:

Ranking of 36 major U.S. cities by their "Plug-in Electric Vehicle Readiness"
Rank	City/state	Rank	City/state	Rank	City/state
1	Portland, Oregon	13	Indianapolis, Indiana	25	Newark, New Jersey
2	Washington, D.C.	14	Orlando, Florida	26	Raleigh, North Carolina
3	Baltimore, Maryland	15	San Diego, California	27	Burlington, Vermont
4	New York City, NY	16	Seattle, Washington	28	Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
5	Denver, Colorado	17	San Jose, California	29	San Antonio, Texas
6	Los Angeles, California	18	Hartford, Connecticut	30	Charlotte, North Carolina
7	Atlanta, Georgia	19	Phoenix, Arizona	31	Memphis, Tennessee
8	Chicago, Illinois	20	Fort Worth, Texas	32	Detroit, Michigan
9	Austin, Texas	21	Honolulu, Hawaii	33	El Paso, Texas
10	San Francisco, California	22	Nashville, Tennessee	34	Portland, Maine
11	Boston, Massachusetts	23	Dallas, Texas	35	Providence, Rhode Island
12	Houston, Texas	24	Jacksonville, Florida	36	Columbus, Ohio
Source: Indiana University School of Public and Environmental Affairs (2016).[187]

Markets and sales

National market

U.S. annual sales of plug-in passenger cars between December 2010 and December 2019.[15][6][189]

Cumulative sales of highway legal plug-in electric cars in the U.S. since 2010 totaled 1,608,261 at the end of August 2020, consisting of 1,008,118 electric cars (62.7%) and 600,143 plug-in hybrids (37.3%).[3][190] As of December 2019, the American stock represented 20% of the global plug-in car fleet in use, down from about 40% in 2014.[4][191] Sales in the American market are led by California with 668,827 plug-in electric vehicles sold up until 2019.[10][11]

As of December 2014, the United States had the world's largest stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, and led annual plug-in car sales in calendar year 2014.[192][193] By May 2016, the European stock of light-duty had surpassed the U.S.[194] By the end of September 2016, the Chinese stock of plug-in passenger cars reached the level of the American plug-in stock,[195] and by November 2016, China's cumulative total plug-in passenger vehicles sales had surpassed those of Europe, allowing China to become the market with the world's largest stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles.[192][196] China also surpassed both the U.S. and Europe in terms of annual sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles since 2015.[197]

Comparison of annual plug-in passenger cars sales in China and the U.S. between 2011 and 2019.[4]

National sales increased from 17,800 units delivered in 2011 to 53,200 during 2012, and reached 97,100 in 2013, up 83% from the previous year.[198] During 2014 plug-in electric car sales totaled 123,347 units, up 27.0% from 2013, and fell to 114,248 units in 2015, down 7.4% from 2014.[6] A total of 157,181 plug-in cars were sold in 2016, up 37.6% from 2015,[199] rose to 199,818 in 2017, and achieved a record sales volume of 361,307 units in 2018.[14] Sales declined in 2019 to 329,528 units.[15]

The market share of plug-in electric passenger cars increased from 0.14% in 2011 to 0.37% in 2012, 0.62% in 2013, and reached 0.75% of new car sales in 2014.[5][200][6] As plug-in car sales slowed down during the 2015, the segment's market share fell to 0.66% of new car sales,[6][201] then increased to 0.90% in 2016.[13] The market share passed the 1% mark for the first time in 2017 (1.13%).[7] Then in 2018 the take-rate rose to 2.1%,[8] but declined to 1.9% in 2019.[9]

Until January 2019, the Chevrolet Volt was the all-time best selling plug-in electric car in the U.S.[202][203]

In July 2016, the Volt became the first plug-in vehicle in the American market to achieve the 100,000 unit sales milestone.[204] Leaf sales achieved the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2016, becoming the first all-electric vehicle in the country to pass that mark.[205] The Model S achieved the mark of 100,000 sales in the U.S. in June 2017, launched in June 2012, the Model S hit this milestone quicker than both the Volt and the Leaf.[206][207] Launched in July 2017, the Tesla Model 3 reached the 100,000 unit milestone in November 2018, hitting this milestone quicker than any previous model sold in the U.S.[208]

As of December 2018, the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid listed as the all-time best selling plug-in electric car with 152,144 units of both generations.[209] The Model S was the best selling plug-in car in the U.S. for three consecutive years, from 2015 to 2017,[12] and the Model 3 topped sales in 2018 and 2019.[14][15] The Model 3 surpassed in 2019 the discontinued Chevrolet Volt to become the all-time best selling plug-in car in U.S. history, with an estimated 300,471 units delivered since inception, followed by the Tesla Model S all-electric car with about 157,992, and the Chevrolet Volt with 157,054.[1]

Sales by powertrain

U.S. cumulative monthly sales of plug-in cars from December 2010 up to August 2020, showing the evolution of the split between all-electric cars (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs).[189][190][210]

As of December 2014, cumulative sales of plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S. since December 2010 were led by plug-in hybrids, with 150,946 units sold representing 52.7% of all plug-in car sales, while 135,444 all-electric cars (47.3%) had been delivered to retail customers.[189] During 2015, the all-electric segment grew much faster, with a total of 72,303 all-electric cars sold, up 6.6% year-on-year, while plug-in hybrid were down 22.4% year-on-year, with 42,959 units sold.[6] These results reversed the trend, and as of December 2015, a total of 206,508 all-electric cars and 193,904 plug-in hybrids have been sold since 2010, with all-electrics now representing 51.6% of cumulative sales.[189][211] The lead of battery electric cars continued in 2016, with 84,246 all-electrics sold, up 18.4% from 2015, representing 53.6% of the plug-in segment 2016 sales, while sales of plug-in hybrids totaled 72,935 unis, up 69.1% from 2015.[199] As of August 2016, the distribution of cumulative sales since 2010 between these two technologies is 52.8% all-electrics and 47.2% plug-in hybrids.[212]

Sales growth

Comparison of annual sales of passenger hybrid electric and plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S. between 2000 and 2019.[213]

Sales of series production plug-in cars during its first two years in the U.S. market were lower than the initial expectations.[20][21][23][214] Cumulative plug-in electric car sales since 2008 reached the 250,000 units in August 2014,[215] 500,000 in August 2016,[212] and the one million goal was achieved in September 2018.[24][25]

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, combined sales of plug-in hybrids and battery electric cars are climbing more rapidly and outselling by more than double sales of hybrid-electric vehicles over their respective 24 month introductory periods, as shown in the graph at the right.[79]

Cumulative sales of new PEVs are doing better than sales of HEVs in the United States over their respective 24 month introductory periods.[79]

A more detailed analysis by the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy over the same two-year introductory periods found that except for the initial months in the market, monthly sales of the Volt and the Leaf have been higher than the Prius HEV, and the Prius PHEV has outsold the regular Prius during its 8 months in the market. Over the first 24 months from introduction, the Prius HEV achieved monthly sales of over 1,700 in month 18, the Leaf achieved about 1,700 units in month 7, the Prius PHEV achieved nearly 1,900 sales in month 8, and the Volt achieved more than 2,900 sales in month 23.[216] A 2016 analysis by the Consumer Federation of America (CFA) found that 5 years after its introduction, sales of plug-in electric cars in the U.S. continued to outsell conventional hybrids. The analysis considered sales between January 2011 and December 2015.[217]

An analysis by Scientific American found a similar trend at the international level when considering the global top selling PEVs over a 36-month introductory period. Monthly sales of the Volt, Prius PHV and Leaf are performing better than the conventional Prius during their respective introductory periods, with the exception of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, which has been outsold most of the time by the Prius HEV over their 36-month introductory periods.[218]

Key market features

According to Edmunds.com, leasing of plug-in cars instead of purchasing is dominant in the American market, with leasing accounting for 51% of all new all-electric cars and 73% of plug-in hybrids, compared with just 32% of gasoline-powered cars in 2016.[219]

The Tesla Model S ranked as the top selling plug-in car in the U.S. for three years running, from 2015 to 2017.[7][6][199]

As of 2016, the market of used plug-in electric cars is concentrated in California, the state with the biggest pool of used plug-in vehicles, especially all-electrics, followed by Colorado, Florida, Georgia, New York, Oregon and Texas. With the exception of used Teslas, all models depreciate more rapidly than conventionally powered cars and trucks. For all-electric cars depreciation varies between 60% to 75% in three years. In contrast, most conventionally powered vehicles in the same period depreciate between 45% to 50% . The Tesla Model S is more like conventional cars, with three-year depreciation of about 40%. And plug-in hybrids depreciate less than all-electric cars but still depreciate faster than conventionally powered cars.[219]

Researchers from the University of California, Davis conducted a study to identify the factors influencing the decision to adopt high-end battery electric vehicles (BEV), such as the Tesla Model S, as these vehicles are remarkably different from mainstream BEVs. Based on a questionnaire responded by 539 high-end adopters and in-depth interviews with 33 adopters, the 2016 study found that "environmental, performance, and technological motivations are reasons for adoption; the new technology brings a new segment of buyers into the market; and financial purchase incentives are not important in the consumer’s decision to adopt a high-end BEV."[220]

Car dealers' reluctance to sell

With the exception of Tesla Motors, almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships, so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.[221][222] Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase. Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales.[221] As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.[222] A 2016 study indicated that 60% of Americans were not aware of electric cars.[223]

There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline-powered cars. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. However, a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance.[221] According to the New York Times, BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic and informed, but only about 10% of dealers are knowledgeable on the new technology.[221]

Car dealerships can play a role in the sales of plug-in electric vehicles. Shown is a Chevrolet dealership exhibiting first-generation Volts.

A study conducted at the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS), at the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) published in 2014 found that many car dealers are less than enthusiastic about plug-in vehicles. ITS conducted 43 interviews with six automakers and 20 new car dealers selling plug-in vehicles in California's major metro markets. The study also analyzed national and state-level J.D. Power 2013 Sales Satisfaction Index (SSI) study data on customer satisfaction with new car dealerships and Tesla retail stores. The researchers found that buyers of plug-in electric vehicles were significantly less satisfied and rated the dealer purchase experience much lower than buyers of non-premium conventional cars, while Tesla Motors earned industry-high scores. According to the findings, plug-in buyers expect more from dealers than conventional buyers, including product knowledge and support that extends beyond traditional offerings.[222][224]

In 2014 Consumer Reports published results from a survey conducted with 19 secret shoppers that went to 85 dealerships in four states, making anonymous visits between December 2013 and March 2014. The secret shoppers asked a number of specific questions about cars to test the salespeople's knowledge about electric cars. The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug-in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline-powered models. The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales; a few outright discouraged it, and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug-in model despite having one in stock. And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric-car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs. Consumer Reports also found that when it came to answering basic questions, sales people at Chevrolet, Ford, and Nissan dealerships tended to be better informed than those at Honda and Toyota. The survey found that most of the Toyota dealerships visited recommended against buying a Prius Plug-in and suggested buying a standard Prius hybrid instead. Overall, the secret shoppers reported that only 13 dealers "discouraged sale of EV," with seven of them being in New York. However, at 35 of the 85 dealerships visited, the secret shoppers said sales people recommended buying a gasoline-powered car instead.[225]

The ITS-Davis study also found that a small but influential minority of dealers have introduced new approaches to better meet the needs of plug-in customers. Examples include marketing carpool lane stickers, enrolling buyers in charging networks, and preparing incentive paperwork for customers. Some dealers assign seasoned sales people as plug-in experts, many of whom drive plug-ins themselves to learn and be familiar with the technology and relate the cars' benefits to potential buyers. The study concluded also that carmakers could do much more to support dealers selling PEVs.[222]

Concentration relative to population

As of July 2016, the U.S. average concentration was 1.51 plug-in cars registered per 1,000 people, while California's concentration was 5.83 registrations per 1,000 people. At the time, only Norway exceeded California's plug-in concentration per capita, by 3.69 times.[226][227] As of December 2017, the average national ownership per capita rose to 2.21 plug-ins per 1,000 people.[228]

In 2017 eight states had more than two plug-in vehicles registered per 1,000 people, of which, three are located in the West Coast. California had the highest concentration with 8.64 plug-ins per 1,000 people. Hawaii ranked second (5.12) followed by Washington (4.06), Oregon (3.84) Vermont (3.73), Colorado (2.33), Arizona (2.29), and Maryland (2.03).[228] Mississippi (0.20), Arkansas (0.28), West Virginia (0.30), Louisiana (0.31), Wyoming (0.37), and North Dakota (0.39) had the lowest concentration of plug-in cars in 2017.[228] In terms of growth from 2016 to 2017 for plug-in vehicle registrations per capita, five states had growth rates of 50% or higher: Vermont (56.4%) Maryland (54.2%), Massachusetts (52.5%), New Hampshire (50.2%), and Alaska (50.0%). The U.S. average growth rate from 2016 to 2017 was 30.2%.[229]

U.S. plug-in electric vehicle registrations per 1,000 people by state in 2017. California had the highest concentration of PEVs with 8.64 plug-in cars per 1,000 people.[228]

Comparison of ownership of plug-in electric cars per 1,000 people among top selling PEV countries and California in 2020[227]

Market share by city and state

The following table summarizes the ten states and metropolitan areas leading all-electric car adoption in terms of their market share of new light-vehicle registrations or sales during 2013 and 2014.

Top ten selling all-electric vehicle (BEV)
states and metropolitan areas by market share of new car sales

Rank 2014^(1)	State[230]	Market share^(2) 2014 CYTD^(1)	Rank 2013	State[230]	Market share^(2) 2013		Rank	Metro area[231]	Market share 2013-2014^(3)
1	Georgia	1.60%	1	Washington	1.40%		1	San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose	3.33%
2	California	1.41%	2	California	1.28%		2	Atlanta	2.15%
3	Washington	1.13%	3	Hawaii	1.21%		3	Seattle-Tacoma	1.83%
4	Hawaii	1.04%	4	Georgia	0.94%		4	Honolulu	1.71%
5	Oregon	0.67%	5	Oregon	0.89%		5	Monterey-Salinas	1.51%
6	Utah	0.31%	6	Washington, D.C.	0.52%		6	San Diego	1.34 %
7	Colorado	0.27%	7	Colorado	0.33%		7	Santa Barbara-Santa Maria-San Luis Obispo	1.29%
8	Arizona	0.20%	8	Utah	0.31%		8	Portland	1.25%
9	Tennessee	0.19%	9	Tennessee	0.28%		9	Los Angeles	1.08%
10	Connecticut	0.19%	10	Illinois	0.25%		10	Eugene	0.86%
U.S. average		0.32%[230]					0.38%[232]
Notes: (1) CYTD: current year-to-date sales as of 30 June 2014 (2) New all-electric vehicle (BEV) registrations as % of total new registrations of light-vehicles only. (3) Sales of new all-electric vehicles as % of total new light-vehicle sales between April 2013 and March 2014.

A total of 52% of American plug-in electric car registrations from January to May 2013 were concentrated in five metropolitan areas: San Francisco (19.5%), Los Angeles (15.4%), Seattle (8.0%), New York (4.6%) and Atlanta (4.4%).[233][234] From January to July 2013, the three cities with the highest all-electric car registrations were all located in California, Atherton and Los Altos in the Silicon Valley, followed by Santa Monica, located in Los Angeles County.[235][236]

California

Cumulative plug-in vehicle sales in California compared to the world's top-selling countries and regional markets as of December 2019.

Comparison of annual sales of plug-in passenger cars in the U.S. versus California between 2010 and 2019.[14][15][10][237][238][210]

Governor Jerry Brown issued an executive order in March 2012 that established the goal of getting 1.5 million zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) in California by 2025.[29][30] In January 2018, Governor Brown set a new goal of getting a total of 5 million zero-emission vehicles in California by 2030.[239] As of December 2019, cumulative sales totaled 668,827 plug-in electric vehicles registered, making California the leading plug-in market in the country.[10][237][240][241]

Until December 2014 California not only had more plug-in electric vehicles than any other American state but also more than any other country in the world.[242][243] In 2015 only two countries, Norway (22.4%) and the Netherlands (9.7%), achieved a higher plug-in market share than California.[244] By November 2016, with about 250,000 plug-in cars sold in the state since 2010, China was the only country market that exceeds California in terms of cumulative plug-in electric car sales.[245]

California's plug-in car market share was 3.5% of new car sales in 2016, while the U.S. take-rate was 0.90%.[199][246] In 2017, the state's market share reached nearly 5%, while the national share was 1.1%.[247][239][7] The plug-in market share rose to 7.8% in 2018, ahead of conventional hybrids (4.2%), with the all-electric segment reaching for the first time a higher take-rate as conventional hybrids.[237][248] The combined take-rate of plug-in cars in California slightly declined to 7.7% in 2019.[10]

Incentives

California has been a leader in the promotion of plug-in electric vehicles as the state has in place several financial and non-financial incentives. In addition to the existing federal tax credit, plug-ins are eligible for a purchase rebate through the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP).[47] Also, zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) and Enhanced Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emission Vehicle (Enhanced AT PZEV), have been entitled to a clean air sticker that allows the vehicle to be operated by a single occupant in California's carpool or high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV).[249] The limits for plug-in hybrids and expiration dates have been extended several times, and new rules went into force from January 1, 2019.[250][251]

In March 2016 California added income-based caps to its rebate system. Buyers with incomes less than 300% of the Federal poverty level get up to US$3,000 for a plug-in hybrid, US$4,000 for an all-electric car, and US$6,500 for a hydrogen fuel-cell car.[252] The income-base caps went into effect on 1 November 2016. Residents are not eligible for rebates if their gross annual income exceeds US$150,000 for single tax filers, US$204,000 for head of household filers and US$300,000 for joint filers.[253][254]

Georgia

Georgia ranked second in the U.S. after California in terms of total plug-in electric vehicles on the road by mid-2014 .[255] During the first half of 2014 Georgia ranked as the top selling all-electric car market in the U.S. at the state level with a 1.6% share of new light-vehicle registrations, ahead of California (1.41%), and up from 0.94% during 2013.[230] As of August 2014, there were about 12,000 electric vehicles registered in the state, of which, about 80% are registered in metro Atlanta's five core counties.[256] In the 12 months between April 2013 and March 2014, metro Atlanta was the second top selling all-electric car metropolitan market in the U.S., with a market share of 2.15% of total new light-vehicle sales in the state, 5.6 times the national average share of 0.38%.[232] Savannah ranks second in the state after Atlanta, with a market share of 0.13% of total new light-vehicle sales.[231]

Between August 2013 and May 2014, Atlanta was the top U.S. metropolitan market for the Nissan Leaf for eight out of the ten months,[232] and until July 2013, Atlanta was the third largest Leaf market behind San Francisco and Los Angeles.[257] Leaf sales are favored by Georgia's law, which caps sales of electric vehicles sold direct by a manufacturer to 150, setting a restrictive limit to Tesla Model S sales, and the law excluded plug-in hybrids for eligibility to the state's tax credit.[232]

Tax credits

The State of Georgia considers alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) those that run solely on alternative fuel and do not run on regular gasoline. AFVs includes vehicles that operate using battery electricity, propane, natural gas, and hydrogen fuel cell.[258] As incentives to accelerate all-electric vehicle adoption, in addition to the existing US$7,500 federal tax credit, Georgia offers an income tax credit of 20% of the vehicle cost up to US$5,000 for the purchase or leasing of a zero emission vehicle (ZEV). Plug-in hybrids are not eligible for this incentive because sometimes they are powered by electricity from their on-board combustion engine. There is also a 10% tax credit up to US$2,500 for the purchase and installation of qualified electric vehicle charger. This tax credit applies only to non-retail business enterprises and chargers installed at homes do not qualify.[56]

Tesla Roadster with Georgia's Alternative Fuel Vehicle (AFV) license plate, which allows access to high occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV) regardless of number of passengers

An income tax credit for the purchase of a new commercial medium-duty or heavy-duty AFVs started on July 1, 2015. Medium-duty hybrid electric vehicles also qualify. Eligible medium-duty AFVs with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) between 8,500 to 26,001 lb (3,856 to 11,794 kg) qualify for a credit of up to US$12,000, while heavy-duty AFVs with a GVWR over 26,001 lb (11,794 kg) qualify for a credit of up to US$20,000. The credit is capped at US$250,000 per taxpayer. Qualified AFVs must be purchased before June 30, 2017, remain registered in Georgia for at least five years, and accumulate at least 75% of their annual mileage in Georgia. Up to US$2.5 million in total credits will be available each fiscal year.[259]

Access to HOV lanes

The definition of alternate fuel vehicle for the purposes of an AFV License Plate in Georgia is different from the one for tax credit purposes. The Official Code of Georgia Annotated defines an AFV as a vehicle that has been certified by the EPA in accordance with the Federal Clean Air Act, therefore, both all-electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids are eligible for Georgia's AFV license plate.[260] All vehicles displaying a GA alternative fuel license plate are allowed to use high occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV) regardless of number of passengers. Alternative fuel vehicles displaying the proper alternative fuel license plat may obtain a Peach Pass electronic tag that grants them toll-free access to all Peach Pass controlled high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT) lanes.[261]

Time-of-use electricity rates

Georgia Power, the primary utility in Atlanta, offers a time-of-use electric vehicle plan designed for plug-in charging. As of September 2014, the plan has about 1,500 customers statewide.[262] For a monthly fee of US$10, the utility lowers the overnight rate to 1.3 cents per Kilowatt hour (kWh) while raising the peak rate, from 2-7 p.m. from June through September, to 20.3 cents per kWh. There is also a shoulder rate of 6.2 cents per Kwh in between those times.[262] The average U.S. rate is 11.88 cents per kWh.[232]

Charging infrastructure

As of April 2014, Georgia had 238 charging stations with 548 public outlets available across the state.[182] Of these, about 120 public charging stations are located in metro Atlanta, with only about half of these located inside the city limits of Atlanta. Considering the rapid growth of electric cars in the city, there is a shortage of charging infrastructure relative to supply of electric vehicles.[256]

The city of Atlanta is considering legislation to attend the needs of electric car owners and others who want to provide electric vehicle charging at their business, multifamily dwelling or private home. The measure aims to remove a major barrier to owning an electric vehicle by encouraging office and residential landlords to install electric vehicle chargers and reserved parking. Under the proposal, each electric vehicle charging station would be counted as one parking space, and the minimum parking requirement for developers and builders would be reduced by one space for each charging station provided, allowing up to a 10% reduction in minimum parking requirements. The city also wants to simplify the process required to obtain a permit to install electric vehicle chargers and make the spaces more identifiable.[256]

Hawaii

A public electric car charging station in Kaka'ako, Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii

Hawaii has a high potential for mass adoption of plug-in electric vehicles due to the limited driving range imposed by the island geographies, and its high fuel costs, with gasoline prices, as of September 2013, ranging between US$4.25 and US$5.00 a gallon.[263][264] The number of registered plug-in electric vehicles increased from 581 units in 2011, to 967 in 2012,[265] and reached 1,551 units in June 2013.[266] As of August 2014, a total of 2,821 plug-in highway legal plug-in electric cars have been registered in Hawaii.[267]

In terms of EV adoption, Hawaii ranked in 2013 as the state with the third highest all-electric car market share with 1.21% of new car sales, and during the first half of 2014 ranked fourth with a 1.04% market share.[230] Accounting for sales of pure electric cars between April 2013 and March 2014, the Honolulu metropolitan area ranks as the fourth top selling BEV metro market in the United States, with 1.71% of new car sales.[231]

In January 2011 the state implemented a purchase rebate of up to US$5,000 available for both the purchase of a plug-in electric car purchase and a charging station, but limited to US$4,500 for the vehicle.[268] The rebate ended in May 2012 as high consumer demand depleted the fund. More than 450 rebates were issued totaling about US$2 million . Several efforts to add more funds were unsuccessful.[269]

Maryland

Nissan Leaf with Maryland's sticker to identify plug-in electric vehicles eligible to use HOV lanes with solo drivers

As of December 2015, there were 2,282 all-electric cars registered in Maryland. Sales of the Nissan Leaf and Tesla Model S account for about 70% of the electrics registered in the state.[270] As part of the incentives to promote electric vehicle adoption, drivers of approved plug-in electric vehicles can use Maryland's high occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes at all times, even if they are traveling solo. This incentive is in effect until September 30, 2017.[59]

Plug-in electric vehicles purchased new and titled for the first time between July 1, 2014, and July 1, 2017, are eligible for a credit up to US$3,000, calculated as US$125 per kWh of battery capacity. Buyers of PEVs may apply for a tax credit against the imposed excise tax. The credit is returned to the taxpayer in the form of a check from the state. The tax credit is limited to one vehicle per individual and 10 vehicles per business. A qualified vehicle must meet the following criteria:[271]

• Has a gross vehicle weight rating of 8,500 pounds or less;
• Can achieve a maximum speed of at least 55 miles per hour;
• Is a two-, three-, or four-wheeled vehicle;
• Is propelled to a significant extent by an electric motor that draws electricity from a battery with a capacity of at least four kilowatt-hours (kWh) in the case of a four-wheeled motor vehicle, or at least two and a half kWh in the case of a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle;
• Has not been modified from original manufacturer specifications; and
• Is purchased after October 1, 2010.

The state also offers a US$900 rebate for buying and installation of wall connectorsfor individuals, US$5,000 for business, or state or local governments, and US$7,000 for retail service station dealers. Between July 1, 2014, and June 30, 2016, rebate amounts are equal to the previous amounts, up to 50% of the costs of acquiring and installing qualified chargers.[272]

New York

The stock of plug-in electric vehicles in New York climbed from 1,000 units in early 2012, to over 10,000 plug-in vehicles by mid-September 2,014. The state of New York set the goal to deploy up to 3,000 EV charging stations in public and workplace locations across the state by 2018. As of September 2014, there are about 1,000 charging stations.[273]

Plug-in electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles with a combined fuel economy rating of at least 45 mpg_‑US (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg_‑imp) and that also meet the California Air Resources Board SULEV emissions standard, are eligible for the Clean Pass Program. Eligible vehicles which display the Clean Pass vehicle sticker are allowed to use the Long Island Expressway HOV lanes, regardless of the number of occupants.[274] Drivers of qualified vehicles may also receive a 10% discount on established E-ZPass accounts with proof of registration.[65] In New York state there are no purchase incentives.

Oregon

As of November 2013, there were about 3,500 plug-in electric vehicles registered in Oregon.[275] In 2013 the state was the fifth top selling all-electric car market in the U.S. at the state level with a 0.89% market share of new light-vehicle registrations, more than twice the national average share of 0.32%. During the first half of 2014 Oregon BEV share fell to 0.67% but continued to rank in the fifth place among the top selling states.[230]

In the 12 months between April 2013 and March 2014, two metropolitan areas in Oregon ranked among the top ten selling all-electric car metropolitan markets in the U.S. Portland ranked eighth with a 1.25% market share of total new light-vehicle sales, ahead of Los Angeles metropolitan area, and Eugene ranked in number 10 with a market share of 0.86%. The national average share during this period was 0.38%.[231]

Incentives

A US$1,500 tax credit for the purchase of a new all-electric vehicle is no longer available.[275][276] There is a tax credit up to US$750 to cover 25% of the cost of purchasing and installing an electric vehicle charger station, and 35% for business owners. Beginning January 1, 2015, business owners that purchase two or more all-electric vehicles may be eligible for a tax credit of 35% of eligible costs for the incremental cost of purchasing the vehicles. This incentive ends on December 31, 2018.[261]

Electric Avenue

Electric Avenue charging stations at Portland State University

Electric Avenue is a joint research and development initiative of Portland State University (PSU), Portland General Electric (PGE), and the City of Portland. The Electric Avenue was launched in August 2011 to learn about the interaction and performance of charging stations and a variety of electric vehicles. The initiative also aimed to understand the charging preferences and travel patterns of electric vehicle visitors. The charging infrastructure includes quick chargers and both Level 1 and Level 2 charging stations powered by 100% renewable energy from PGE, and offers charging at standard city parking rates. The site comprises eight on street parking spaces with seven available charging stations located along an entire block. The Electric Avenue is located in the south end of downtown Portland, at the PSU's campus adjacent to Portland's Sixth Avenue Transit Mall where light rail trains, electric street cars, buses, cars, bikes, and pedestrians share a well-integrated personal and public transit corridor.[277]

Texas

Texas is the second largest light-duty vehicle market in the U.S. after California, with over 20 million passenger and light truck vehicles registered at the end of 2013.[278] As of May 2014, there were about 5,000 plug-in electric vehicles registered in the state.[279] Accounting for sales of new all-electric vehicles between April 2013 and March 2014, the top three selling metropolitan markets in Texas in terms of market share of total new light-vehicle sales were the Austin metropolitan area with 0.47%, followed by Dallas-Ft. Worth with 0.21% and Houston area with 0.15%.[231] The national average share for the period was 0.38%, with Austin ranking in 15th place, and together with metro Atlanta, the only two cities in the top 15 that are not located on the West Coast.[232]

In November 2013 the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality approved a rebate program to provide financial incentives up to US$2,500 for the purchase or lease of new eligible vehicles powered by compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or plug-in electric drive with battery capacity larger than 4 kWh.[279] The rebate amount for leasing depends on the lease term, only 4-year lease terms are eligible for the full US$2,500, just like new car purchases.[280] Total funding for the program is US$7.7 million , and the maximum number of vehicles allowed is 2,000 units for each plug-in electric drive and natural gas/propane vehicles for the length of the program.[279][280] Only purchases made on or after May 13, 2014 are eligible to apply for a rebate, and the program ends June 26, 2015 or until funding ends. As of 22 September 2014, there were US$67 million remaining in the rebate fund.[281]

Nissan Leaf charging in Houston, Texas

Among plug-in cars sold nationwide, the Tesla Model S is not eligible for the rebate because only new PEVs purchased or leased from a dealer or leasing company licensed to operate in Texas may qualify. Tesla Motors is not authorized to sell its vehicles in the state due to its direct-sales business model.[279][282][283] But customers can buy directly from the company's website like in any other state.

Texas River Cities Plug-In Electric Vehicle Initiative

Despite the low penetration of plug-in electric vehicles in the state, the Texas River Cities Plug-In Electric Vehicle Initiative (TRC) is one of the most comprehensive plans for electric vehicles and their infrastructure aimed to increase the long-term success of PEV adoption. The TRC initiative encompasses two major metropolitan areas in and around Austin and San Antonio.[284] Austin Energy, one of the project partners, had deployed 239 utility-operated publicly accessible charging stations in the TRC region by 2012. The utility company is the recipient of the U.S. Department of Energy funding for this initiative. The TRC region is projected to have 4,259 PEVs in 2015 and 17,336 in 2020.[285]

Pecan Street demonstration project

This demonstration project is run by the Pecan Street Inc., a University of Texas based research consortium of research and industry partners focused on developing and testing advanced technology, business model, and customer behavior surrounding energy management systems. The project is supported by a US$10.4 million smart grid demonstration grant from the U.S. Department of Energy and more than US$14 million in matching funds from the project partners. The demonstration project began in 2010 and is taken place with volunteer residents at the Mueller neighborhood, a planned green community in Austin. The Pecan Street hosts an electric vehicle research program and provides incentives to participants with rebates of US$3,000 and US$7,500 to lease or purchase a PEV that is in addition to the federal tax credits. Through the research program, Pecan Street is studying grid load and monitoring home energy use through management equipment. As a result of the incentive program, Mueller has more plug-in electric vehicles per capita than any other U.S. neighborhood.[286][287][288]

General Motors is a sponsor of the Pecan Street demonstration and is supporting the project to learn the charging patterns of plug-in electric car owners, and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same, which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug-in cars return home in the evening. As of June 2013, the community had nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone thanks to GM's commitment to match the federal government's US$7,500 rebate incentive, which halves the purchase price of the Volt.[289]

Washington

The state set a goal to have 50,000 electric or other clean vehicles on the road by 2020.[17] As of 30 June 2016, there were 30,701 battery-powered and plug-in electric cars registered in Washington.[290] The Seattle metropolitan area concentrated 76% of the state PEV registrations, with 18,154 plug-ins in King County (59%), where the city of Seattle is located, 3,153 in Snohomish County (10.3%), and 2,040 in Pierce County (6.6%). Outside the metro area, Clark County has the largest number of PEV registrations with 1,467 units (4.8%).[290]

The City of Seattle operates the Nissan Leaf as part of its fleet

Washington was the top selling all-electric car market in the U.S. at the state level in 2013 with a 1.40% market share of new light-vehicle registrations, ahead of California (1.28%). Washington PEV share in 2013 was more than four times the national average share of 0.32%.[230] In the 12 months between April 2013 and March 2014, Seattle-Tacoma metro ranked as the third top selling all-electric car metropolitan market with a 1.83% market share of total new light-vehicle sales, only behind San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose (3.33%) and Atlanta (2.15%).[231]

Incentives

New passenger cars, light-duty trucks, and medium-duty passenger vehicles that operate exclusively on electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, or propane are exempt from state motor vehicle sales and use taxes. Qualified vehicles must also meet the California motor vehicle emissions standards, and comply with the rules of the Washington Department of Ecology.[291] The initial sales tax exemption expired on July 1, 2015.[291] The sales tax exemption was renewed on July 1, 2015, for four years, but the incentive was limited to new plug-in cars that cost less than US$35,000. The approved cap excludes what legislators considered as luxury cars such as Tesla Motors and BMW i electric models. The same legislations that extended the incentives through 2019, raised the annual registration renewal fee for plug-in car owners from US$100 to US$150. That annual fee is designed to make electric vehicle drivers contribute toward highway maintenance in lieu of the gas taxes PEVs do not pay.[292]

The Tesla Model S and other plug-in electric cars with purchase price above US$42,500 or plug-in hybrids with an all-electric range of less than 30 mi (48 km) are not eligible for the tax exemption in Washington state.

In April 2016 governor Jay Inslee signed legislation to provide up to about US$3,100 off the purchase or lease of a new car all-electric vehicle, or a plug-in hybrid with at least 30 mi (48 km) of all-electric range – such as the Chevrolet Volt and the BMW i3 REx. The new law also raises the previous purchase price cap to US$42,500, which will allow buyers of the Chevrolet Bolt EV, the next generation Nissan Leaf, and the Tesla Model 3 – all with 200 mi (320 km) of electric range – to be eligible for the incentive. The new law goes into effect on July 1, 2016. Under the updatede scheme, the sales tax exemption applies to the first US$32,000 of the selling price of a qualifying new plug-in electric car, which translates into a tax savings between US$2,600 to US$3,100 for plug-in car buyers depending on where the dealer is located within the state, as the sales tax vary by county. The tax exemption could expire before July 2019 if sales of electric vehicles accelerate because legislators established that the tax break should end the month after 7,500 qualifying vehicles are sold in the state. The state Department of Licensing was directed to start a tally beginning with PEV registrations since July 15, 2015.[67][293] As of April 2016, the state sales tax is 6.5%, and increases up to 9.8% depending on the county rate.[67]

Puget Sound Energy (PSE) provides a US$500 rebate to the first 5,000 qualified customers for the purchase and installation of Level 2 electric vehicle charging station (EVSE). Eligible applicants must be PSE residential electric schedule 7 customers, must be the registered owner of an electric vehicle, and must install the charging station within a specified timeframe. PSE expects the rebate program to remain available until November 1, 2016, depending on available funds.[294][295]

Sales by model

Top selling manufacturers of plug-in electric cars sold in the United States. Cumulative sales between 2008 and August 2016.[212]

As of December 2018, there were 43 highway legal plug-in cars available in the American market for retail sales, 15 all-electric cars and 28 plug-in hybrids,[296] plus several models of electric motorcycles, utility vans and neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs). As of November 2018, sales were concentrated to a few models, with the top 10 best selling plug-in cars accounting for about 84% of total sales during the first eleven months of 2018.[297] Car manufacturers are offering plug-in electric cars in the U.S. for retail customers under 21 brands or marques: Audi, BMW, Cadillac, Chevrolet, Chrysler, Fiat, Ford, Honda, Hyundai, Jaguar, Kia, Mercedes-Benz, MINI, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Porsche, Smart, Tesla, Toyota, Volkswagen, and Volvo.[298]

As of September 2016, only the Chevrolet Volt, Nissan Leaf, Tesla's Model S and Model X, BMW i3, Mitsubishi i, Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid, Cadillac ELR, and Ford's C-Max and Fusion Energi plug-in hybrids were available nationwide. Several models, such as the Toyota RAV4, Fiat 500e, Honda Fit EV, and Chevrolet Spark EV, are compliance cars sold in limited markets, mainly California, available in order to raise an automaker's fleet average fuel economy to satisfy regulator requirements.[299][300][301][302]

As of November 2018, the top selling plug-in car manufacturers in the American market are Tesla with about 269,000 units delivered, GM with 203,941, Nissan with 126,875 units, Ford with 111,715, Toyota with 93,011 and the BMW Group with 79,679 plug-in electric cars.[43]

Top selling models

The Tesla Model 3 was the best selling plug-in car in the U.S. in 2018 and 2019,[14][15] and is the all-time top selling plug-in model in the country.[1]

The Nissan Leaf was the U.S. top selling plug-in car in 2011 (9,674), and the Chevrolet Volt topped sales in 2012 (23,461).[5] Again in 2013, sales were led by the Chevrolet Volt with 23,094 units, followed by the Nissan Leaf with 22,610 cars, and the Tesla Model S with about 18,000 units.[303] In 2013 the Model S was the top selling car in the American full-size luxury sedan category, ahead of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (13,303), the top selling car in the category in 2012.[303] In 2014 the Leaf took the sales lead, with 30,200 units sold, with the Volt ranking second with 18,805, followed by the Model S with 16,689 units.[6]

The Tesla Model S, with 25,202 units delivered, was the top selling plug-in car in 2015, followed by the Nissan Leaf with 17,269 units, and the Volt with 15,393.[6] Again in 2016, the Model S was the best selling plug-in car with about 29,156 units delivered, followed by the Volt with 24,739, and the Model X with about 18,028.[13] For the third consecutive year, the Tesla Model S was the top selling plug-in car with about 26,500 units sold in 2017, followed by the Chevrolet Bolt (23,297), Tesla Model X (~21,700).[7][304]

Sales in 2018 were led by the Tesla Model 3 with an estimated 139,782 units delivered, the first time a plug-in car sold more than 100 thousand units in a single year. Ranking next were the Toyota Prius Prime (27,595) and the Tesla Model X (~26,100).[14] Sales in 2019 were topped again by the Tesla Model 3 with an estimated 158,925 units delivered, followed by the Toyota Prius Prime (23,630), the Tesla Model X (19,225), the Chevrolet Bolt EV (16,418) and the Tesla Model S (14,100).[15]

The following table presents cumulative sales of the all-time top 10 best-selling highway-capable plug-in electric cars launched in the American market since 2008, with sales through December 2020.[14]

Top 10 U.S. selling highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars (produced between 2008 and December 2020 - cumulative sales since inception)
Model	Market launch	Sales/Production
Tesla Model 3	Jul 2017	~300,471 units sold through December 2019.[1] The Model 3 was the top selling plug-in car in the U.S. in 2018 and 2019.[14][15] The electric sedan has been the U.S. top selling plug-in car every month since January 2018[305][296][208] and reached the 100,000 unit milestone quicker than any previous model sold in the U.S.[208] In February 2019, the Model 3 became the U.S. all-time best selling plug-in car.[306][203]
Tesla Model S (MY 2012) Tesla Model S (facelifted MY 2016)	Jun 2012	~157,992 units sold through December 2019.[1] The Model S topped annual plug-in car sales in the U.S. between 2015 and 2017.[296] Until December 2018, the Model S was the U.S. all-time best selling all-electric car.[202]
Chevrolet Volt first generation Chevrolet Volt second generation	Dec 2010	157,125 Volts sold through December 2020 (both generations).[1][307] The Chevy Volt topped annual plug-in car sales in the U.S. in 2012 and 2013.[5][303] The Volt ranked as the U.S. all-time top selling plug-in electric car until January 2019.[202] Production of the first generation 2015 model year Volt ended in mid-May 2015.[308] Deliveries of the second generation Volt began in October 2015.[309] Production ended in February 2019.[310] The last 71 units were sold in 2020.[307]
Nissan Leaf first generation Nissan Leaf second generation	Dec 2010	151,471 Leafs sold through December 2020 (both generations).[1][311] The Leaf was the U.S. top selling plug-in car in 2011 and 2014.[5][6]
Toyota Prius PHV first generation Toyota Prius Prime second generation	Feb 2012	Over 109,000 units sold through September 2019 (both generations).[1] A total of 44,767 first generation units sold through December 2016.[199][212][312][313] Production of the first generation Prius Plug-in ended in June 2015.[314] Dealerships run out of stock of the first generation model in September 2016.[315] Deliveries of the second generation Prius Prime began in November 2016.[316]
Tesla Model X	Sep 2015	~85,077 units sold through December 2019.[1]
Chevrolet Bolt EV	Dec 2016	79,067 units sold through December 2020.[1][307]
Ford Fusion Energi	Feb 2013	More than 66,679 units sold through September 2019.[1] Production was scheduled to end by 2020, as part of Ford decision to discontinue in the North American market their entire passenger car line up.[317]
Ford C-Max Energi	Oct 2012	42,231 units sold through December 2018.[1] Production ended in November 2017.[318] Dealerships run out of stock of in October 2018.[319][320]
BMW i3	May 2014	41,988 units through December 2019 (both all-electric and REx models).[1] Until February 2017, the REx/BEV sales ratio was 3:1.[321]

Neighborhood electric vehicles

The GEM is the best selling low-speed neighborhood electric vehicle in the U.S.

Low-Speed Vehicles (LSVs) are defined as "four-wheeled motor vehicles whose top speed is 20 to 25 mph (32 to 40 km/h) to be used in residential areas, planned communities, industrial sites, and other areas with low density traffic, and low-speed zones."[322] LSVs, more commonly known as neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), were defined in 1998 by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 500, which required safety features such as windshields and seat belts, but not doors or side walls.[323][324][325]

Since 1998 Global Electric Motorcars (GEM), the market leader in North America, has sold more than 50,000 GEM battery-electric vehicles worldwide as of October 2015.[326]

Modern production timeline

The General Motors EV1 was one of the first PEVs introduced in 1996 as a result of CARB's zero-emissions vehicle mandate.

Toyota RAV4 EV (first generation)

Tesla Roadster (first generation)

Navistar eStar all-electric van

Azure Transit Connect Electric

Smith Newton delivery truck

Scion iQ EV

Hyundai Kona Electric

Porsche Taycan

Tesla Model Y

Mustang Mach-E

Polestar 2

Nissan Ariya

Volkswagen ID.4

Rivian R1T

Tesla Roadster (2020)

This is a list of all highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles available for retail customers in the U.S. for sale or leasing since the early 1990s.

1990-2003

• Chrysler TEVan (1993-1995)
• General Motors EV1 (1996-2003)
• Toyota RAV4 EV (1997-2003)
• Honda EV Plus (1997-1999)
• Nissan Altra (1998-2001)
• Dodge Caravan EPIC (1999 to 2001)
• Ford TH!NK City (1999-2003)

2008-2021

2008

• Tesla Roadster (production ended in 2011)

2009

• Mini E (demonstration program ended in 2011)

2010

• Chevrolet Volt (replaced by second generation in 2015)
• Nissan Leaf (replaced by second generation in 2017)
• Navistar eStar utility van

2011

• Th!nk City (no longer in production)
• Smart ED 2nd gen (available for leasing only)
• Wheego Whip LiFe (no longer in production)
• Fisker Karma (no longer in production)
• Azure Transit Connect Electric delivery van (no longer in production)
• Mitsubishi i (Mitsubishi i MiEV in the rest of the world)
• Smith Newton delivery truck

2012

• BMW ActiveE (demonstration program ended in 2014)
• Coda (no longer in production)
• Ford Focus Electric (limited production)
• Toyota Prius PHV (production ended in 2015)
• Boulder DV-500 delivery truck
• Amp Electric Vehicles (SUV and light truck conversions)
• Tesla Model S
• Honda Fit EV (limited production)
• Toyota RAV4 EV (2nd gen) (limited production)
• Ford C-Max Energi (production ended in 2018)

2013

• Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid
• Ford Fusion Energi
• Scion iQ EV (limited production available only for carsharing fleets, not for retail customers)
• Smart electric drive 3rd gen (available with battery leasing option)
• Chevrolet Spark EV (limited production)
• Fiat 500e (limited production)
• Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid
• Cadillac ELR (limited production)

2014

• BMW i3
• Porsche 918 Spyder (limited edition)
• Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive
• BMW i8 (production ended in 2020)
• Volkswagen e-Golf
• Kia Soul EV
• Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid

2015

• Mercedes-Benz S 500 Plug-in Hybrid
• Volvo XC 90 PHEV
• Tesla Model X
• Bolloré Bluecar (available only for the BlueIndy carsharing fleet - ended in 2020)
• Chevrolet Volt (second generation) (production ended in 2019)
• BMW X5 xDrive40e
• Hyundai Sonata PHEV
• Audi A3 Sportback e-tron
• Audi Q7 e-tron Quattro

2016

• BMW 330e iPerformance
• Mercedes-Benz GLE 550e Plug-in Hybrid
• Toyota Prius Prime (second generation Prius PHEV)
• Chevrolet Bolt EV
• BMW 740e iPerformance
• Mercedes-Benz C 350e Plug-in Hybrid

2017

• Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid
• BMW 530e iPerformance
• Tesla Model 3
• Kia Optima PHEV
• Honda Clarity Electric
• Honda Clarity Plug-in Hybrid
• Volvo XC60 Plug-in Hybrid
• Mini Cooper S E ALL4
• Hyundai Ioniq Electric
• Cadillac CT6 Plug-in Hybrid
• Volvo S90 T8 Plug-in Hybrid
• Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV
• Nissan Leaf (second generation)

2018

• Hyundai Ioniq Plug-in
• Mercedes-Benz GLC 350e 4MATIC
• Karma Revero (updated version of the Fisker Karma)
• Jaguar I-Pace

2019

• Hyundai Kona
• Subaru Crosstrek Plug-in Hybrid
• Kia e-Niro
• Audi e-tron
• Mercedes-Benz EQC
• Porsche Taycan

2020

• Toyota RAV4 Prime
• Tesla Model Y
• Kandi K23 and K27
• Electra Meccanica SOLO (three-wheeler)
• Ford Mustang Mach-E
• Polestar 2

Future cars and trucks (2021–2023)

The following is a list of electric cars and plug-in hybrids with market launch in the United States scheduled up to 2023.

• Volkswagen ID.4
• Nissan Ariya
• GMC Hummer EV
• Ford Escape PHEV
• Ford F-150 Electric Pickup
• Rivian R1T pickup truck
• BrightDrop EV600
• Cadillac Escalade EV
• Cadillac Lyriq
• Mazda MX-30
• Tesla Cybertruck
• Lordstown Endurance pickup truck
• Tesla Roadster second generation
• BMW iX3
• BMW iNext
• Volvo XC40 Recharge
• Fisker eMotion
• Lucid Air
• Aptera 3
• Byton M-Byte
• Bollinger B1 and B2
• Bentley Continental Plug-In Hybrid

U.S. electric vehicle organizations

• CalCars (The California Cars Initiative)
• Drive Oregon
• Electric Auto Association (EAA) (North America)
• Electric Auto Association of Northern Nevada
• Electric Auto Association Silicon Valley
• Electric Car Society
• Humboldt Electric Vehicle Association
• NEDRA National Electric Drive Racing Association
• Oregon Electric Vehicle Association
• Plug In America
• PHEV Research Center
• Project EVIE
• RechargeIT (Google.org)
• San Francisco BayLEAFs
• Seattle Electric Vehicle Association
• World Electric Vehicle Association

See also

• CalCars
• Plug In America
• Electric car use by country
• Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
• Hybrid electric vehicles in the United States
• List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
• List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles available in the United States
• New energy vehicles in China
• Plug-in electric vehicles in Canada
• Plug-in electric vehicles in California
• Plug-in electric vehicles in Europe
• Plug-in electric vehicles in France
• Plug-in electric vehicles in Germany
• Plug-in electric vehicles in Japan
• Plug-in electric vehicles in the Netherlands
• Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway
• Plug-in electric vehicles in Sweden
• Plug-in electric vehicles in the United Kingdom
• Plug-in hybrids in New York

References

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192. Cobb, Jeff (2016-12-27). "China Takes Lead As Number One In Plug-in Vehicle Sales". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2017-01-06. As of November 2016, cumulative sales of plug-in electric vehicles in China totaled 846,447 units, including passenger and commercial vehicles, making the country the world's leader in overall plug-in electric vehicle sales. With cumulative sales of about 600,000 plug-in electric passenger cars through November 2016, China is also the global leader in the plug-in passenger vehicle segment, ahead of Europe and the U.S.
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194. Cobb, Jeff (2016-06-15). "Europe Buys Its 500,000th Plug-in Vehicle". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-06-15. As of May 2016, cumulative sales by country are led by the United States with a stock of more than 460,000 highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles delivered since 2008. China ranks second with almost 390,000 units sold since 2011, followed by Japan with over 150,000 plug-ins sold between 2009 and April 2016. Europe is the largest regional market with more than 500,000 plug-in electric passenger cars and vans registered through May 2016.
195. Cobb, Jeff (2016-10-17). "China Now Ties US For Leadership In Cumulative Global Plug-In Sales". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-10-17. As of September 2016, the U.S. and China are technically tied for first place as the world's largest plug-in passenger car market. The U.S. has cumulative plug-in car sales of 522,519 units while China has 521,649 domestically produced plug-in cars. Europe is still the world's largest regional market with almost 50,000 more units sold that both countries, totaling about 570,000 light-duty plug-in vehicles.
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204. Cobb, Jeff (2016-07-26). "Top-Selling Chevy Volt Crosses 100,000 US Sales Milestone". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-07-26. As of June 2016, around 117,000 units of the Volt/Ampera family have been sold globally, including close to 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Ampera variants sold in Europe. Volt sales in the American market passed the 100,000 milestone in July 2016.
205. Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-01). "Nissan Leaf Second Plug-in Ever To Sell 100,000 In US". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-01. Since December 2010, about 239,000 Leafs have been sold worldwide through September 2016. The U.S. is the world's largest market with 100,241 units sold through October 2016. Ranking second is Japan with 69,833 units followed by Europe with about 63,000 units, both, through September 2016.
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209. Kane, Mark (2019-01-25). "Top 3 Plug-In Hybrid Cars In U.S. In 2018: Prius Prime, Clarity, Volt". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2019-01-25. The Chevrolet Volt is the best selling plug-in electric car in the U.S. with 152,144 units sold through the end of 2018.
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215. Jeff Cobb (2014-09-09). "Americans Buy Their 250,000th Plug-In Car". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2014-09-09. As of August 2014, sales are led by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid with 67,698 units, followed by the Nissan Leaf electric car with 61,063 units. The total of 250,609 units sold includes 1,800 Roadsters, 1,600 Fisker Karmas, and 500 Mini Es usually not captured by most statistics.
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226. Cobb, Jeff (2016-08-09). "California Continues To Pull More Than Its Weight In Plug-in Car Sales". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-08-29. As of July 2016, California's plug-in car concentration was 5.83 registrations per 1,000 people, the U.S. was 1.51 per 1,000. Norway exceeds California by 3.69 times, California narrowly outpaces the Netherlands by 1.04 times.
227. Cobb, Jeff (2016-09-01). "Americans Buy Their Half-Millionth Plug-in Car: Concentration of plug-in electrified car registrations per 1,000 people". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-09-04. As of July 2016, Norway had a concentration of registered plug-in cars per 1,000 people of 21.52, the Netherlands of 5.63, California of 5.83, and the United States national average was 1.52.
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244. Cobb, Jeff (2016-02-17). "California Plug-in Sales Led The US Last Year With Nearly Five-Times Greater Market Share". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-02-18. California's plug-in electric car market share was 3.1%, ranking behind only two countries, the Netherlands (9.7%) and Norway (22.7%). The administrative territory of Hong Kong also had a higher market share of 4.8%.
245. Cobb, Jeff (2016-11-14). "California Celebrates One-Quarter Million Plug-in Cars Sold". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 2016-11-15.
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250. California Air Resources Board (CARB) (2016-09-19). "Eligible vehicle list: Single ocuupant carpool lane stickers". CARB. Retrieved 2016-09-19.
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External links

• 18 Hurdles Electrified Vehicles Are Having To Overcome, HybridCARS, May 2016.
• 2013 VehicleTechnologies Market Report, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
• 2013 ZEV Action Plan: A roadmap toward 1.5 million zero-emission vehicles on California roadways by 2025, Office of the Governor of California, February 2013.
• AAA Electric Vehicle webpage (American Automobile Association)
• A Guide to the Lessons Learned from the Clean Cities Community Electric Vehicle Readiness Projects, Clean Cities, U.S. Department of Energy, January 2013.
• California: Beyond cars? Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Tom Turrentine, August 2014.
• Clean Car Calculator (Institute for Energy Efficiency)
• Clean Cities - 2014 Vehicle Buyer's Guide, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), U.S. Department of Energy, December 2013.
• Cleaner Cars from Cradle to Grave, Union of Concerned Scientists, November 2015.
• Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2015) and Future (2025-2030) Technologies (includes estimated cost of avoided GHG emissions from BEVs and PHEVs in the U.S.), Argonne National Laboratory, June 2016.
• Driving Cleaner - More Electric Vehicles Mean Less Pollution, Environment North Carolina Research & Policy Center, June 2014.
• Early Plug-in Electric Vehicle Sales: Trends, Forecasts, and Determinants, Luskin Center for Innovation, UCLA, July 2012
• Effects of Federal Tax Credits for the Purchase of Electric Vehicles Congressional Budget Office, September 2012
• Effects of Regional Temperature on Electric Vehicle Efficiency, Range, and Emissions in the United States, Tugce Yuksel and Jeremy Michalek, Carnegie Mellon University. 2015
• eGallon Calculator: Compare the costs of driving with electricity, U.S. Department of Energy
• Electric drive vehicle sales figures (U.S. Market) - EV sales, Electric Drive Transportation Association
  • Electric drive vehicle sales 2012->now, animation
• Electric Vehicles and Public Charging Infrastructure: Impediments and Opportunities for Success in the United States, Texas A&M Transportation Institute, July 2013
• Electric Vehicle Guide, Sierra Club
• Electric Vehicle Paradise: How Hawai'i Can Lead the World in Deployment, Center for Law, Energy and the Environment at the University of California, Berkeley, September 2013
• Electric Vehicle Sales Analysis, Luskin Center for Innovation, UCLA, August 2013
• Electric Vehicle Timeline: Electric Cars, Plug-In Hybrids, and Fuel Cell Vehicles (1900-2014), Union of Concerned Scientists
• Emissions Associated with Electric Vehicle Charging: Impact of Electricity Generation Mix, Charging Infrastructure Availability, and Vehicle Type, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, April 2016.
• EPA Green Vehicle Guide
• EV Driver Survey Dashboard, California's Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP)
• EV Everywhere Grand Challenge Blueprint, U.S. Department of Energy, January 2013.
• Evaluating the Impact of High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) Lane Access on Plug-In Vehicles (PEVs) Purchasing and Usage in California, University of California, Davis, Working Paper UCD-ITS-WP-14-01, 2014
• Exploring the Impact of the Federal Tax Credit on the Plug-In Vehicle Market, Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2016.
• Fact Sheet: Plug-in Electric Vehicles (2014), Environmental and Energy Study Institute, June 2014.
• Federal Tax Credits For Plug-In Hybrids, Electric Cars: What You Need To Know, The Washington Post, August 2014.
• Global EV Outlook - Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020, International Energy Agency (IEA), April 2013
• How Clean is Your Electric Vehicle?, Union of Concerned Scientists on-line tool to calculate carbon emissions for a given plug-in car model according to the corresponding U.S. ZIP code.
• Influence of driving patterns on life cycle cost and emissions of hybrid and plug-in electric vehicle powertrains, Carnegie Mellon Vehicle Electrification Group
• Leading Edge of Electric Vehicle Market Development in the United States: An Analysis of California Cities, International Council on Clean Transportation, White Paper, September 2016.
• Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2014 (See Chapter 7), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 2014.
• Light Duty Electric Drive Vehicles Monthly Sales Updates, Argonne National Laboratory
• List of vehicles eligible for California's single occupant carpool lane stickers
• List of U.S. Electric Vehicle and EVSE Incentives by State, September 2014
• Model Year 2014 Fuel Economy Guide, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of Energy, August 2014 (see pp. 33–36 for plug-in electric models available).
• New Car Dealers and Retail Innovation in California’s Plug-In Electric Vehicle Market. Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California, Davis, Working Paper UCD-ITS-WP-14-04, 2014.
• Overcoming Barriers to Electric-Vehicle Deployment: Interim Report (2013), Transportation Research Board, U.S. National Research Council
• Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Seven Markets (Norway, Netherlands, California, United States, France, Japan, and Germany), UC Davis, October 2014.
• Plug-In Electric Vehicle Handbook for Workplace Charging Hosts, Clean Cities, U.S. Department of Energy, August 2013
• Plug-in Electric Vehicles: the First Three Years (of the post-modern electric-vehicle era) Dec 2010 — Nov 2013, Luskin Center for Innovation, UCLA, December 2013
• Qualified Plug-In Electric Drive Motor Vehicles (IRC 30D), Internal Revenue Service (IRS), June 2014
• Roadmap to Climate-Friendly Cars: 2013, Climate Central, August 2013.
• State of the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market, Electrification Coalition, July 2013.
• Supporting the Plug-In Electric Vehicle Market - Best Practices from State Programs, Georgetown Climate Center, December 2014.
• The Great Debate -- All-Electric Cars vs. Plug-In Hybrids, April 2014.
• Top Ten EPA-Rated Fuel Sippers (2014) - including BEVs and PHEVs
• U.S. PEV Sales by Model, Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy