List of gairaigo and wasei-eigo terms
This is a selected list of gairaigo, Japanese words originating or based on foreign-language (generally Western) terms, including wasei-eigo (Japanese pseudo-Anglicisms).
Many of these loanwords derive from Portuguese, due to Portugal's early role in Japanese-Western interaction; Dutch, due to the Netherlands' relationship with Japan amidst the policy of sakoku during the Edo period; and from French and German, due to France and Germany's cultural and scientific prominence during Japan's modernization in the Meiji period.
However, most come from English, the dominant world language today. Due to the large number of western concepts imported into Japanese culture during modern times, there are thousands of these English borrowings. These English words are informally referred to as having been "Nipponized". A few of them, such as "salaryman", have nevertheless been borrowed into English together with their Japanese meanings.
Japanese vocabulary also includes large numbers of words from Chinese, borrowed at various points throughout history. However, since the Japanese language has such strong historical ties to the Chinese language, these loans are not generally considered gairaigo.
Many loanwords are in fact pseudo-borrowings: despite their links to foreign language words, the word forms as used in modern Japanese are not used in the same way in their languages of origin. In fact, many such terms, despite their similarity to the original foreign words, are not easily understood by speakers of those languages (e.g. left over as a baseball term for a hit that goes over the left-fielder's head, rather than uneaten food saved for a later meal as in English—or famikon (ファミコン, from "family computer"), which actually refers to the Nintendo Entertainment System).
See the list of Japanese terms mistaken for gairaigo for details of words or terms mistaken for foreign loanwords and false cognates.
- Note:
- US = American English
- UK = British English
Examples
Due to the extent of Japanese borrowings, particularly from English, this list focuses mainly on pseudo-borrowings and commonly used loanwords from languages other than English (which are often mistaken for English words in Japan). Most loanwords (and all modern loans) are transcribed in katakana, a kana (Japanese syllabary) whose usage approximates English italics. Older loans may be written using ateji, with Kanji used to represent their phonetic readings without necessarily inheriting their meaning. In words composed of both a loan and native Japanese, the Japanese can function as a morpheme within a compound (and would generally be written in Kanji if possible), or can be attached to the foreign word to inflect or otherwise modify it, as if it were okurigana (which is written in hiragana).
| Japanese | Hepburn romanization | Origin | Meaning | Language of origin |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| アベック | abekku | avec (meaning 'with') | romantic couple | French |
| アフレコ | afu-reko | af(ter) + recor(ding) | postrecording, dubbing | English |
| アフターサービス | afutā sābisu | after service | customer service, user support, after-care, service | English |
| アイドル | aidoru | idol | (teen) idol, pop star | English |
| アイス, アイスクリーム | aisu, aisu kurīmu | ice/Eis, ice cream | ice; ice cream | English/German |
| アイスキャンディー | aisu-kyandī | ice + candy | popsicle, ice lolly | English |
| アイゼン | aizen | (Steig)eisen (meaning 'climbing iron' or 'crampon') | crampons | German |
| アメフト (from アメリカン フトボール) | amefuto | Ame(rican) foot(ball) | American football | English |
| アメリカンドッグ | amerikan doggu | American dog | corn dog | English |
| アニメ (from アニメーション) | anime  listen |
anima(tion), anime | animation, animated cartoons or films (although anime has been reborrowed into English with a meaning of "Japanese animation", in Japanese the term refers to all animation) | English |
| アニソン (from アニメソング) | anison | ani(me) + son(g) | an anime song, most often the theme | English |
| アンケート | ankēto | enquête | questionnaire, survey | French |
| アンニュイ | annyui | ennui | ennui, boredom | French |
| アンサー | ansā | answer | reply to a question, solution to a problem | English |
| アンチ | anchi | anti- | hater, anti-fan | English |
| アパート | apāto | apart(ment) | apartment (US), flat (UK), though apāto are usually in small two-story wood-structure buildings, not multistory complexes as in the US usage | English (US) |
| アポ | apo | appo(intment) | appointment | English |
| 〜アップ | -appu | up(grade) | to upgrade or improve (something). Coupled with English or pseudo-English nouns that indicate what that something is; e.g., version-up: upgrade (software), buy the next-better version or model of something, improve the appearance of something; image-up: improve the image of, improve one's outward appearance; "weight-up": to gain weight; manner-up: improve one's manners, learn (proper/better) manners or etiquette; power-up: an object that instantly benefits or adds extra abilities to a video game character; base-up, level-up: take to the next or a higher (basic) level of quality; also base-up (frequently abbreviated bea): to raise the base wage of the workers | English |
| アロエ | aroe | aloë | aloe | Dutch |
| アロワナ | arowana | arwana or arowana | a freshwater bony fish of the family Osteoglossidae. | Indonesian |
| アルバイト or バイト | arubaito or baito | Arbeit (meaning 'work') | part-time job | German |
| アールブイ | ārubui | RV | truck, van, SUV, recreational vehicle | English |
| アルコール | arukōru | alcohol, álcool | alcohol, alcoholic beverage | English (from Arabic) |
| アウトコース | autokōsu | out-course | outside | English |
| バーゲン | bāgen | bargain | a sale at a store | English |
| バイキング | baikingu | viking | smorgasbord, buffet. (Supposedly named after the restaurant "Imperial Viking" in the Imperial Hotel, the first restaurant in Japan to serve buffet-style meals and named after the US film The Vikings) | English |
| バイク | baiku | bike | a motorcycle, but not a bicycle | English |
| バカンス | bakansu | vacances | holiday, vacation | French |
| ブックカバー | bukku kabā | book cover | dust jacket | English |
| バックミラー | bakku mirā | back mirror | rear-view mirror | English |
| バックナンバー | bakku nanbā | back number | back issue | English |
| バックネット | bakku netto | back net | a backstop (in baseball) | English |
| バンパー | banpā | bumper | a horizontal bar fixed across the front or back of a motor vehicle to reduce damage in a collision or as a trim | English |
| バリアフリー | baria furī | barrier-free | accessible facilities for handicapped persons | English |
| バリカン | barikan | Bariquand et Marre | hand-operated or electric hair trimmer | French |
| バスジャック | basu jakku | bus (hi)jack | a bus hijacking (possibly based on the English term "carjack") | English? |
| バター | batā | butter | butter, sometimes used on food packaging for margarine | English |
| バッティング | battingu | batting or butting | Swing the bat in baseball; or, to project forward or propose competitively on business or others by two or more parties, like "butting heads" by animals. | English |
| ベビーカー | bebī kā | baby car | stroller (US), pushchair or pram (UK) | English |
| ベッドタウン | beddo taun | bed town | bedroom suburbs, bedroom community, dormitory suburb, commuter town | English |
| ビー玉 | bīdama | vi(dro) (glass) + 玉 (dama, ball) | marbles | Portuguese + Japanese |
| ビジネスホテル | bijinesu hoteru | business hotel | budget hotel | English |
| ビロード | birōdo | veludo | velvet | Portuguese |
| ビル | biru | buil(ding) | building (especially modern steel-and-concrete buildings) | English |
| ビール | bīru | bier | beer | Dutch |
| ボンベ | bonbe | Bombe | a steel canister for storing pressurized gas, such as a propane tank | German |
| ボールペン | bōru pen | ball(point) pen | a ballpoint pen | English |
| ボタン | botan | botão | button | Portuguese |
| ブランコ | buranko | balanço | a swing | Portuguese |
| ブラセラ or ブルセラ | burasera or burusera | bloo(mer) sailor | panty fetishism, especially with teenage girls wearing school outfits ("sailor suits") and bloomers. | English |
| ブルセラショップ | buru-sera-shoppu | bloo(mer) + sailor (suit) + shop | a shop selling schoolgirls' used underwear and other fetish items | English |
| ブレザー | burezā | blazer | blazer, or a Japanese school uniform that includes that garment. It usually has buttons down the front and a vest under it with a white collared shirt. | English |
| ブルマ | buruma | bloomers | short pants worn for exercise by girls, usually in PE class in high school | English |
| キャビンアテンダント | kyabin atendanto (abbr. "CA") | cabin attendant | A flight attendant | English |
| チャージ | chāji | charge | to top up, to add value, used for e-payment | English |
| チャンプルー | chanpurū | campur | stir fry dish from Okinawa | Malay or Indonesian |
| チェンジレバー | chenji-rebā | change + lever | gearshift, gear lever, gear stick | English |
| チェリーボーイ | cherī bōi | cherry boy | a male virgin | English |
| チアガール, チアマン, チアリーダー | chia gāru, chia man, cheerleader | cheer girl, cheer man, cheerleader | (female), (male) cheerleader | English |
| チアリーディング | chiarīdingu | cheerleading | cheerleading | English |
| チケット | chiketto | ticket | ticket | English |
| チンキ | chinki | tinktuur | tincture | Dutch |
| チューハイ or 酎ハイ | chūhai | 酎 ((shō)chū) + high(ball) | a kind of alcoholic drink from Japan | Japanese + English |
| コラボ | korabo | collab(orations) | collaboration; crossover | English |
| コンピューター or コンピュータ | konpyūtā or konpyūta | computer | computer | English |
| ダブル(noun), ダブる(intransitive verb). Also: "W" | daburu | double | (noun and adjective) double; double-breasted (jacket), or turn-ups (cuffs) on trousers; (verb) to be redundant or doubled | English |
| ダンプカー | danpu kā | dump car | dump truck (US), dumper (UK) | English |
| ダストボックス | dasuto bokkusu | dust box | rubbish bin (UK), garbage can (US) | English |
| ダストシュート | dasuto shūto | dust chute | garbage chute | English |
| ダッチワイフ | datchi-waifu | Dutch + wife | sex doll | English |
| ダウンロードオンリーメンバー | daunrōdo onrī menbā | download-only member | a computing leech | English |
| 〜ティック or 〜チック | -tikku or -chikku | "-tic", as in (roman)tic, (drama)tic | -esque, attached to a noun. For example, a product with cute character illustrations may be considered "Akihabara-chikku". (This is rebracketing, as the actual productive English suffix is -ic. The t is these English words are part of their Latin/Greek etymons' stems.) | English |
| デッドボール | deddo bōru | dead ball | hit by a pitch | English |
| デコレーションケーキ | dekorēshon kēki | decoration cake | a fancy cake | English |
| 電子レンジ or レンジ | denshi renji or renji | 電子 (denshi, electronic) + range | a microwave oven | Japanese + English |
| デパート | depāto | depart(ment store) | department store | English |
| デパ地下 | depa chika | de(partment store) + 地下 (chika, underground)[1] | a shopping area, often focused on food and located adjacent to train stations, found in major cities in Japan | English + Japanese |
| デリバリーヘルス | deribarī herusu | delivery health | a form of prostitution, essentially a call girl or escort service | English |
| デッサン | dessan | dessin | line drawing, sketch | French |
| デスク | desuku | desk | an editor for a certain section of a publication. (Derived from desk’s meaning as a division of specialization in a newsroom, e.g., "the sports desk".) | English |
| ドアカット | doakatto | door + cut | selective door operation | English |
| ドイツ | doitsu | Duits(land), Deutsch(land) | Germany | Dutch, German |
| ドクター ストップ | dokutā sutoppu | doctor stop | when the doctor tells a patient to stop doing something | English |
| ドンマイ | donmai | don('t) mi(nd) | "don't worry about it", "don't pay (that) any mind", "it's/I'm OK", "no problem". Used when something goes wrong. | English |
| ドライバー | doraibā | driver | a screwdriver; motor vehicle driver | English |
| ドライブイン | doraibuin | drive in | rest area, motor lodge, drive-in | English |
| ドラマ | dorama | drama | TV drama, soap opera | English / Spanish / Latin |
| ドリフト | dorifuto | drift | drifting (when a car is in a controlled skid) | English |
| エアコン | eakon | air con(ditioning) / con(ditioner) | air conditioning or air conditioner | English |
| AV | ēbui or ēvui | wasei-eigo AV | adult video; audiovisual (audio-video) | English |
| エキス | ekisu | ex(tract) | extract | Dutch |
| エネルギッシュ | enerugisshu | energisch | energetic | German |
| エンスト | ensuto | en(gine) sto(p) | stall (as in an automobile engine) | English |
| NG | enu-jī | n(ot) + g(ood) | not good or no good, acronym, usually director's cuts, bonus scenes that had to be cut, which takes place somewhere of the main runtime, relevant to show unlike Omake, not broadcast along with main, of movies, shows, anime | English |
| エレベーター | erebētā | elevator | elevator (US), lift (UK) | English (US) |
| エロ | ero | ero(s) | erotic | Greek / English / Spanish |
| エログ | erogu | ero(tic) + (b)log | erotic blog, adult-oriented blog | English |
| エログロ | eroguro | ero(tic) gro(tesque) | an artistic movement featuring "erotic grotesque nonsense" that emerged in Japan in the early 20th century | English |
| エール | ēru | yell | (1) to cheer on a player in a sports competition; (2) to express support for a candidate in an election | English |
| LLC | eruerushī | acronym for "long-life coolant" | antifreeze coolants | English |
| エスカレーター | esukarētā | escalator | escalator | English |
| エスパニャ | esupanya | España | Spain | Spanish |
| エステ | esute | esthé(tique) | beauty salon, esthetic clinic | French |
| エッチ | etchi | H (likely from the first letter of hentai) | dirty, naughty; sex. (The etymology of etchi is still debated.) | English |
| ファイナル | fainaru | final | last | English |
| ファイト | faito | fight | often used to mean "Do your best!" or "I'll do my best." | English |
| ファミコン | famikon, Famicom listen |
fami(ly) com(puter) | the Nintendo Entertainment System. Also a catch-all term by the older generation for any gaming console. | English |
| ファンファーレ | fanfāre | Fanfare | a musical fanfare | German |
| ファンタジック | fantajikku | fantasy + -ic | fantastic | English |
| ファッションヘルス | fasshon herusu | fashion health | a form of brothel | English |
| フェッチ | fetchi | fetch | (computer jargon) To fetch an instruction from main memory when a microprocessor executes a command | English |
| ～フェチ | fechi | feti(sh) | fetish (a sexual fetish or just a distinctive preference) | English |
| フィリピンパブ | firipin-pabu | Philippines + pub | a bar with Filipino staff | English |
| フォアボール | foabōru | four ball | walk, base on, ball four | English |
| フライ | furai | fly | fly ball (baseball term) | English |
| フライ | furai | fry | deep frying | English |
| フライングゲット | furaingu getto | flying get | to purchase an item before its official release date | English |
| フライドポテト | furaido poteto | fried potato | french fries (US), chips (UK) | English |
| フライング(スタート) | furaingu (sutāto) | flying (start) | premature start, breakaway | English |
| フリーダイアル or フリーダイヤル, フリーコール | furī daiaru or furī daiyaru, furī kōru | free dial, free call | toll-free call | English |
| フリーサイズ | furī saizu | free size | one-size-fits-all | English |
| フリーター | furītā | free Arbeiter ("worker") or: free time |
underemployed young adults, people who opt to work (a series of) part-time jobs rather than engage in permanent employment | English + German |
| フロント | furonto | front (desk) | the reception desk, e.g. at a hotel or a sentō | English |
| フロントガラス | furonto garasu | front glass | windshield (US), windscreen (UK) | English |
| ガードマン | gādo man | guard man | a (private) security guard, a person who directs traffic around work sites | English |
| ガラス or 硝子 | garasu | glas or glass | glass (material) | Dutch or English |
| ガソリンスタンド | gasorin sutando | gasoline stand | gas station (US), petrol station (UK) | English |
| ガタパーチャ | gata pācha | getah perca or gutta percha | a hard tough thermoplastic substance which is the coagulated latex of certain Malaysian trees | Malay via English |
| ガッツポーズ | gattsu pōzu | guts pose | fist pump, victory pose | English |
| ガーゼ | gāze | Gaze | gauze | German |
| ゲームセンター or ゲーセン | gēmu sentā or gēsen | game centre | video arcade | English |
| ゲレンデ | gerende | Gelände (meaning 'site; ground; premises') | ski slope | German |
| ギブ(アップ) | gibu(appu) | give (up) | to give up | English |
| ギプス or ギブス | gipusu or gibusu | Gips | cast (gipusu also means a plaster cast, while gibusu refers to a plastic brace) | German |
| ゴム | gomu | gom | rubber, eraser, rubber band | Dutch |
| ゴールデンアワー or ゴールデンタイム | gōruden awā or gōruden taimu | golden hour or golden time | prime time in Japanese television | English |
| ゴールデンウィーク or ゴールデンウイーク | gōruden wīku or gōruden uīku | golden week | A week of holidays in Japan, Golden Week. | English |
| ググる | guguru | goog(le) + -ru (Japanese verb ending) | to google | English + Japanese |
| グラビア | gurabia | gravure | glamour photography | English |
| グラス | gurasu | glass | drinking glass | English |
| グロ | guro | gro(tesque) | grotesque | English |
| ギャラリー | gyararī | gallery | an art gallery, audience, or a pool of celebrities on a program. | English |
| ギャル | gyaru | gal | a young woman who belongs to the gyaru subculture | English |
| ハイカラ | haikara | high colla(r) | (1920s slang) a person who was devoted to Western fashions, trends and values. E.g., manga/anime Haikara-san ga Tōru ("Here Comes Miss High-Collar"). | English |
| ハイネック | hainekku | high neck | A turtleneck style shirt or sweater | English |
| ハイオク | haioku | high octane | high-octane gasoline | English |
| ハイタッチ | haitatchi | high touch | High five | English |
| ハッカー | hakkā | hacker | refers specifically to a computer black hat | English |
| ハモる | hamoru | harmo(ny) + -ru (Japanese verb ending) | to harmonize (when singing) | English + Japanese |
| ハンバーグ | hanbāgu | hamburg(er steak) | Salisbury steak (culinary term) | English |
| ハンチング帽 | hanchingu-bō | hunting + 帽 (bō, hat, cap) | deerstalker cap, hunting cap | English + Japanese |
| ハンドル | handoru | handle | steering wheel or bicycle handlebars | English |
| ハンドルキーパー | handoru kīpā | handle keeper | designated driver | English |
| ハンドルネーム | handoru nēmu | handle name | handle, screen name | English |
| ハンカチ | hankachi | han(d)kerchie(f) | handkerchief | English |
| ハンスト | hansuto | hun(ger) st(rike) | hunger strike | English |
| ハッピーエンド | happī endo | happy end | a happy ending | English |
| ハウス (ビニールハウス) | hausu (binīru hausu) | house (vinyl house) | greenhouse or glasshouse | English |
| ヘアピンカーブ | heapin kābu | hairpin curve | hairpin turn | English |
| ヘルスメーター | herusu mētā | health meter | bathroom scales, scales | English |
| ヒステリー | hisuterī | Hysterie | loss of (self-)control | German |
| ヒップ | hippu | Hips | buttocks, butt | English |
| ホルモン | horumon | Hormon | hormone; also offal when served for yakiniku or hotpot | German |
| ホース | hōsu | hoos | a hose | Dutch |
| ホッチキス | hotchikisu | Hotchkiss | stapler (a genericized trademark of the E. H. Hotchkiss company, also used in Korea) | English |
| ホテヘルス | hote-herusu | hote(l) + health | erotic massage provided in a hotel room | English |
| ホテトル | hote-toru | hote(l) + Tur(kish bath) | sexual services provided in a hotel room | English |
| ホットケーキ | hotto kēki | hotcake | a pancake, hotcake | English |
| ホーム | hōmu | (plat)form | a railway platform | English |
| ホワイトデー | howaito dē | White + Day | White Day, a month after Valentine's Day | English |
| イエス | iesu | Jesus | Jesus | Greek (reconstructed) |
| イエスー | iesū | yes | i es | English |
| イギリス | igirisu | *inglês or inglés | English, England or the United Kingdom | *Portuguese and Spanish |
| イクラ | ikura | икра (ikra, meaning 'caviar') | salmon roe | Russian |
| イメージ | imēji | image | an image, often used to indicate an artist's rendering or a graphic intended to provide a conceptual image of a situation; especially in advertising and design, a conceptual description intended to conjure a mental image of an abstract situation; (the public's) impression or perception of an entity. | English |
| イメージクラブ | imēji-kurabu | image + club | a type of brothel in which the staff dress in costumes (schoolgirl, nurse, etc.) | English |
| インスタ | insuta | English | ||
| インフレ | infure | infla(tion) | inflation | English |
| イン・キー | in kī | in key | locking one's car keys inside of one's car | English |
| イラスト | irasuto | illust(ration) | an illustration | English |
| イヤー・オブ・ザ・コーチ | iyā obu za kōchi | year of the coach | coach of the year (a title given to coaches by Asahi Shimbun and the High School Baseball Federation from 2003–05; renamed 育成功労賞, the Training Achievement Award) | English |
| ジャンパー | janpā | jumper | jacket, jumper (ski jumping athlete) | English |
| ジャンプ | janpu | jump | ju mp | English |
| ジェンダーフリー | jendā furī | gender free | gender equality, gender blind | English |
| ジェットコースター | jetto kōsutā | jet coaster | roller coaster | English |
| ジンギスカン | jingisukan | Genghis Khan | jingisukan (Mongolian-style barbecue with cut lamb and vegetables) | Mongolian |
| ジーパン | jīpan | jea(ns) + pan(ts) | jeans | English |
| ジープ | jīpu | jeep | a small, sturdy motor vehicle with four-wheel drive, especially one used by the military | English |
| ジュース | jūsu | juice | soda or energy drinks, regardless of whether they contain any juice | English |
| カーセックス | kā-sekkusu | car + sex | public sex (in a car) | English |
| カチューシャ | kachūsha | Katyusha, a character in the novel Resurrection | Alice band: horseshoe-shaped hairband made of metal or plastic (often covered with cloth). However, in Russian it is ободок (obodók). | Russian |
| カメラマン | kameraman | cameraman | photographer or cameraman | English |
| カモン or カモーン | kamon or kamōn | come on | An invitation to join an activity or event. | English |
| カン or 缶 | kan | kan | can (beverage can or tin can) | Dutch |
| カンニング | kanningu | cunning | cheating | English |
| カッパ or 合羽 | kappa | capa (de chuva), capa (de lluvia) | (rain) coat | Portuguese / Spanish |
| カラン | karan | kraan | faucet | Dutch |
| カラオケ | karaoke | 空 (kara, empty) + orche(stra) | karaoke | Japanese + English |
| カリウム or カリ or 加里 | kariumu or kari | kalium | potassium | Dutch |
| カルキ | karuki | kalk | lime (mineral) | Dutch |
| カルピス | karupisu | cal(cium) + सर पिस (sar)pis (Sanskrit for "good taste") | Calpis (a milky soft drink) | English + Sanskrit |
| カルタ | karuta | carta | karuta (Japanese playing cards) | Portuguese / Spanish |
| カルテ | karute | Karte | (a patient's) medical record | German |
| カシューナッツ | Kashū nattsu | cashew nut | cashew | English |
| カステラ | kasutera | (pão de) Castela (bread from Castile) | castella, a kind of sponge cake at festivals and a street food in Japan | Portuguese |
| カタルシス | katarushisu | katharsis (κάθαρσις) | catharsis, purification, purgation | Greek |
| キーホルダー | kī horudā | key holder | key ring or key chain | English |
| キーボード | kībōdo | keyboard | a keyboard | English |
| キリスト or 基督 | kirisuto | Cristo | Christ | *Portuguese / Spanish |
| キスマーク | kisu māku | kiss mark | hickey | English |
| キッチンペーパー | kitchin pēpā | kitchen paper | paper towel | English |
| コーヒー or 珈琲 | kōhī | koffie | coffee | Dutch |
| コインランドリー | koin randorī | coin laundry | laundromat (US), launderette (UK) | English |
| コインロッカー | koin rokkā | coin locker | coin-operated locker | English |
| コック | kokku | kok | a cook | Dutch |
| コマーシャルメッセージ or CM | komāsharu messeji | commercial message | television advertisement | English |
| コミカライズ | komikaraizu | comic[al] + -ize | to make a comic strip (manga) version of an originally non-comic strip title, such as a novel, movie, or TV show. | English |
| コンビニ | konbini | conveni(ence store) | convenience store | English |
| コンビナート | konbināto | комбинат (kombinat, meaning 'combine') | combine (enterprise) | Russian |
| コンクール | konkūru | concours | a contest, a competition | French |
| コンセント | konsento | concent(ric plug) | power outlet | English |
| コント | konto | conte | a short comedy | French |
| コップ | koppu | copo | a glass or tumbler | Portuguese |
| コラーゲン | korāgen | Kollagen | collagen | German |
| コロッケー | korokke | croquette | croquette, a small fried roll | English |
| コスプレ | kosupure | cos(tume) play | cosplay (dressing up in costumes, especially from manga, anime and video games) | English |
| クラブ or 倶楽部 | kurabu | club | a club or society | English |
| クラクション | kurakushon | Klaxon | horn (on an automobile) | English |
| クランケ | kuranke | Kranker | patient | German |
| クレーム | kurēmu | claim | a complaint | English |
| クレーンゲーム | kurēn-gēmu | crane + game | claw crane (an alternate term used in Japan is "UFO catcher", derived from the Sega game of the same name) | English |
| クリスタル | kurisutaru | crystal | shiny or clear | English |
| キャバクラ | kyabakura | cabaret club | hostess club | English |
| キャベツ | kyabetsu | cabbage | cabbage | English |
| キャンペーン | kyanpēn | campaign | a sales campaign or sweepstakes | English |
| キャンピングカー | kyanpingu kā | camping-car | a recreational vehicle. (A pseudo-anglicism used in France) | French-made English |
| キャッチボール | kyatchi bōru | catch ball | the game of catch | English |
| キャッチホン | kyatchi hon | catch phone | call waiting | English |
| キャッチコピー | kyatchi kopī | catch copy | tagline | English |
| キャップ | kyappu | cap | cap | English |
| マグカップ | magu kappu | mug cup | mug | English |
| マイナスドライバー | mainasu doraibā | minus driver | (flathead) screwdriver | English |
| マイ〜 | mai~ | my | Someone's own. E.g., mai būmu: personal taste; mai kã: one's own car; mai waifu : one's wife; mai hōmū: one's own house; mai pēsu: doing things at one's own (leisurely) pace, taking one's time (often somewhat derogatory). Confusingly for English speakers, this can be used to refer to someone else's car, wife, home, etc. | English |
| マジックインキ | majikku inki | Magic Ink | permanent marker (a genericized trademark of Uchida Yoko Co.) | English |
| マジックテープ | majikku tēpu | magic tape | velcro | English |
| ママ | mama | mamá | mom | Spanish |
| マンダラ or 曼陀羅 | mandara | मण्डल (máṇḍala) | mandala | Sanskrit via Chinese |
| マニア | mania | mania | enthusiasm, enthusiast | English |
| マンジャカニ | manjakani | manjakani (Aleppo oak) | a species of oak, bearing galls that used for traditional medicine in Asia | Malay |
| マンション | manshon | mansion | modern concrete apartment / condominium block | English |
| 満タン | mantan | 満 (man, full) + tan(k) | full tank (as in the fuel tank of an automobile) | Japanese + English |
| マントル | man-toru | man(sion) + Tur(kish bath) | sexual services provided in a private apartment | English |
| マロン | maron | marron | chestnut, metaphor for brown eyes | French |
| マスコミ | masukomi | mass communication | mass media, the media, the press | English |
| マザコン | mazakon | mother com(plex)[2] | Oedipus complex, a strong attachment to one's mother (often used derogatorily); "girly man" | English |
| マゾ | mazo (abbr. "M") | masochiste | masochist | French |
| メーカー | mēkā | maker | manufacturer | English |
| メール | mēru | English | ||
| メールマガジン | mēru magajin | mail magazine | e-mail newsletter, ezine | English |
| メルヘン | meruhen | Märchen | fairy tale | German |
| メタボ | metabo | metabo(lic) | Fat around the middle, big-bellied | English |
| ミクスチャーロック | mikusuchā-rokku | mixture + rock | rock music with rap, hip-hop, and reggae influences; also, as a catch-all term to describe such genres as rap rock, nu metal | English |
| ミニアルバム | mini-arubamu | mini + album | extended play | English |
| ミイラ or 木乃伊 | mīra | mirra (myrrh: an oil used in preservation) | a mummy | Portuguese / Spanish |
| ミルク | miruku | milk | milk, non-dairy creamer | English |
| ミシン | mishin | machine | sewing machine | English |
| モバイル | mobairu | mobile | mobile communications, mobile communications capability, or mobile communications devices, esp. PDAs and personal computers with wireless communications capabilities | English |
| モバメ | mobame | mobile + mail | mobile phone-based mailing list subscription, usually used by entertainers to share their daily activities with fans | English |
| モボ | mobo | mo(dern) bo(y) | (1920s slang) young men adopting western styles and behaviours | English |
| モガ | moga | mo(dern) gi(rl) | (1920s slang) young women adopting western styles and behaviours, flapper | English |
| モーニングコール | mōningu kōru | morning call | wake-up call | English |
| モーニングコート or モーニング | mōningu kōto or mōningu | morning coat | morning coat | English |
| モーニングサービス or モーニング | mōningu sābisu | morning service | breakfast special, complimentary toast, hard-boiled egg et al. that is served at cafes when a cup of coffee is ordered (only seen in some parts of Japan) | English |
| モラトリアム人間 | moratoriamu ningen | moratorium + 人間 (ningen, person) | a person who, having completed education and other preparations, delays the transition from student to productive member of society, staying in an uncertain limbo of continued education, part-time work, and parental support (similar to freeter) | English + Japanese |
| モーテル | mōteru | motel | recently called as "love hotel". Does not have meaning of English "motel" used by tourists with their own vehicles. | English |
| ムーディ | mūdi | moody | nice | English |
| ムーンサルト | mūnsaruto | moon + Salto | an artistic gymnastics maneuver. Also used to describe a professional wrestling maneuver. | English + German |
| ナイター | naitā | night + -er | a night game | English |
| ナンバーディスプレイ | nanbā disupurei | number display | caller ID | English |
| ナンバープレート | nanbā purēto | number plate | number plate (UK), license plate (US) | English |
| ナトリウム | natoriumu | Natrium | sodium (Na) | Latin via German |
| ニート or NEET | nīto | Not in Employment, Education or Training | underemployed young adults, akin to freeter | English |
| ノー | nō | no | no | English |
| ノイローゼ | noirōze | Neurose | neurosis | German |
| ノークレームノーリターン | nō kurēmu nō ritān | no claim, no return | sold "as is" | English |
| ノルマ | noruma | норма (norma, meaning 'standard; norm') | quota, minimum requirement (tasks) | Russian |
| ノート | nōto | note | a notebook | English |
| ノートパソコン | nōto-pasokon | note + perso(nal) + com(puter) | laptop | English |
| ニューハーフ | nyūhāfu | new-half | A transgender individual that has undergone a sex change operation. | English |
| オーバー | ōbā | over | overreaction to a situation or the end of a dating relationship | English |
| オブ | obu | of | of | English |
| OB, OG | ōbī, ōjī | old boy, old girl | alumnus, alumna, former student; furthermore used for former sport team members, employees, politicians etc., for former members of any kind of organisation likewise | English |
| オーダーメード | ōdā-mēdo | order + made | bespoke (tailoring) | English |
| オーディエンス | ōdiensu | audience | group of people who participate in a show | English |
| オードブル | ōdoburu | hors-d'œuvre | hors-d'œuvre | French |
| オーエル | ōeru | O.L. (office lady) | female office worker, usually in a clerical or support job | English |
| オフ | ofu | off | a sale at a store; e.g., a "big summer off" (=big summer sale) | English |
| オフヴォーカル | ofu-vōkaru | off + vocal | backing track, instrumental | English |
| オイルショック | oiru-shokku | oil + shock | oil crisis | English |
| オージー | ōjī | orgy | an orgy | English |
| オナニー | onanī | Onanie | masturbation (see Onan) | German |
| オンリーワン | onrīwan | only one | (adjective) one-of-a-kind or unique; e.g., オンリーワン技術 (-gijutsu, "unique technology") or オンリーワン商品 (-shōhin, "one-of-a-kind products") | English |
| オペ | ope | OP (abbr. from operation) | surgical operation, minor surgery | German |
| オープンカー | ōpun kā | open car | convertible (automobile) | English |
| オーライ | ōrai | a(ll) righ(t) | all right, OK | English |
| オルゴール | orugōru | orgel | a music box or any instrument that operates off of a music roll, such as a calliope | Dutch |
| オートバイ | ōtobai | auto-bi(cycle) | motorcycle, motorbike | English |
| パイン | pain | pine(apple) | pineapple | English |
| パーマ | pāma | perma(nent wave) | perm | English |
| パン | pan | pão, pan | bread | Portuguese / Spanish |
| パネリスト | panerisuto | panelist | panelist | English |
| パンク | panku | punc(ture) | flat tire | English |
| パンスト | pansuto | pan(ty) + sto(cking) | pantyhose | English |
| パソコン | pasokon | perso(nal) com(puter) | PC | English |
| パーソナルコンピューター | pāsonaru konpyūtā | personal computer | personal computer | English |
| パンツ | pantsu | pants | underpants (US; simply called "pants" in the UK) | English (UK) |
| パパ | papa | papà or papá | dad | Italian or Spanish |
| ペチカ | pechika | печка (pechka, meaning 'little oven') | Russian stove | Russian |
| ペアルック | pea rukku | pair look | matching outfits (usually between a couple) | English |
| ペニス | penisu | penis | the penis | Latin |
| ペンション | penshon | pension | a resort hotel / chalet / cottage | French |
| ペーパーカンパニー | pēpā kanpanī | paper company | dummy company, shell company | English |
| ペーパードライバー | pēpā doraibā | paper driver | a person who has a driver's license but does not usually drive (i.e., a driver only on paper) | English |
| ペパロニ, ペッペロニ | peparoni, pepperoni | pep per oni | Pepperoni | English |
| ペーパーテスト | pēpā tesuto | paper test | written examination/test | English |
| ピチュー | Pichū | pi chu | Pichu | English |
| ピエロ | piero | pierrot | a clown | French |
| ピーマン | pīman | piment | sweet bell pepper | French |
| ピカチュウ | Pikachū | pi ka chu | Pikachu | English |
| ピッケル | pikkeru | (Eis)pickel (meaning 'ice axe') | ice axe | German |
| ピザ, ピッザ | piza, pizza | pi tsa | Pizza | English |
| ピンサロン | pin-saron | pink + salon | sex parlor | English |
| ピンチ | pinchi | pinch | potentially disastrous situation (from "in a pinch") | English |
| ピンセット | pinsetto | pincet | tweezers | Dutch |
| ポエマー | poemā | poema (poem) + -er | a poet | English + Spanish |
| ポケベル | pokeberu | pocke(t) bell | beeper, pager | English |
| ポケモン | Pokémon | pocke(t) mon(ster) | Pokémon | English |
| ポケットモンスター | Poketto Monsutā | Poc ket mon ster | Pocket Monsters | Japanese |
| ポンプ | ponpu | pomp | pump | Dutch |
| ポシェット | poshetto | pochette | a small bag | French |
| ポスト | posuto | post | a mailbox (US), a postbox (UK) | English |
| ポテチ | pote-chi | potato + chips | potato chips | English |
| プラスアルファ | purasu arufa | plus alpha (ἄλφα) (a misreading of "+ X") | in addition, a little bit more, with something else | English + Greek |
| プラスドライバー | purasu doraibā | plus driver | Phillips screwdriver | English |
| プレー, プレイ | purē, purei | play | pl ay | English |
| プレイ | purei | pray | pr ay | English |
| プレイガイド | purei gaido | play + guide | (theater) ticket agency | English |
| プリクラ | purikura | Print Club (trademark) | photo booth#purikura | English |
| プロ | puro | professional | describes a business professional or professional sports | English |
| プロフィール | purofīru | profil | a profile | French |
| プロレス | puroresu | pro(fessional) wrest(ling) | professional wrestling | English |
| プッシュホン | pusshu hon | push phone | push-button telephone. A genericized trademark first registered by the Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation (電電公社, Dendenkōsha, now NTT) | English |
| ラブドール | rabu-dōru | love + doll | a sex doll made of silicone | English |
| ラブホテル | rabu hoteru | love hotel | love hotel (hotel used as a private place for couples to have sex) | English |
| ライバル | raibaru | rival | A fellow competitor or an enemy | English |
| ライブアクション | raibu akushon | live-action | animated or comic form stories made into TV shows/movies involving real actors. It's the opposite of komikarizu | English |
| ライブハウス | raibu hausu | live house | club with live music, rock bar | English |
| ライフライン | raifurain | lifeline | infrastructure | English |
| ラッコ | rakko | rakko | a sea otter | Ainu |
| ラムネ | ramune | lemona(de) | Ramune (a lemon-lime soft drink; hard, powdery candy like Rockets or Smarties) | English |
| ランドセル | randoseru | ransel | a hard schoolbag, worn on the back, carried by young children to school | Dutch |
| ランジェリーパブ | ranjerī-pabu | lingerie + pub | a public house in which the waitresses work in their underwear | English |
| ランニングホームラン | ranningu hōmu ran | running home run | an inside-the-park home run (baseball) | English |
| ランニングシャツ | ranningu shatsu | running shirt | a sleeveless T-shirt | English |
| レジュメ | rejume | résumé | a resume, an outline | French |
| レントゲン | rentogen | Röntgen | X-ray, X-ray medical imaging | German |
| レースクイーン | rēsu kuīn | race queen | umbrella girls | English |
| レストラン | resutoran | restaurant | restaurant | French |
| リベンジ | ribenji | revenge | return match, rematch, chance for redemption after a failed attempt | English |
| リーチ | rīchi | reach | One step away from winning. Usually used in bingo. | English |
| リードオンリーメンバー | rīdo onrī menbā | read-only member | an internet lurker, thought to be a pun on "read-only memory" | English |
| リフォーム | rifōmu | reform | remodel, renovation (as in a building) | English |
| リモコン | rimokon | remo(te) con(trol) | remote control | English |
| リンクフリー | rinku furī | link free | free to link | English |
| リニューアル | rinyūaru | renewal | remodeling | English |
| リサイクルショップ | risaikuru shoppu | recycle shop | secondhand shop (selling used or unwanted furniture, household appliances, housewares, and clothes; slightly different from non-profit or charity thrift shops in that they are fundamentally for-profit shops and perceived as one way to help reduce trash) | English |
| リセマラ | rise-mara | reset marathon | uninstalling and reinstalling a game in order to re-roll certain starting items or statistics until a desirable result is achieved | English |
| リストラ | risutora | restru(cturing) | (noun) restructuring, but with emphasis on lowering headcounts as in downsizing, termination as a redundancy; (verb) to downsize, lay off or terminate as a redundancy. When used in the passive (〜される: -sareru), to get or have been made redundant, downsized (out of a job) | English |
| ロードショー | rōdo shō | roadshow | premiere, especially of a film | English |
| ロケーションハンティング, ロケハン | rokēshon hantingu, rokehan | location hunting | location scout | English |
| ロマン | roman | roman | novel, something that rouses one's dreams / longings | French |
| ロマンスグレー | romansu gurē | romance grey | silver-gray hair | English |
| ロマンスカー | romansu kā | Romancecar | deluxe train (named after a series of limited express operated by the Odakyu Electric Railway) | English |
| ロンパリ | ronpari | Lon(don) + Paris | slang for strabismus (crosseyed, wandering eye), alluding to one eye looking toward London while the other looking toward Paris | English + French |
| ロープウェー | rōpuwē | ropeway | ropeway | English |
| ロリコン | rorikon | Loli(ta) (title of a novel by Vladimir Nabokov) com(plex) | sexual attraction to fictional and real underage girls, or ephebophilia. (reborrowed into English to refer a genre of manga-style sexual artwork involving childlike female characters) | English |
| ロスタイム | rosu taimu | loss time | added time, additional time | English |
| ルー | rū | roux | roux, most commonly used in describing the sauce of the popular dish, curry rice | French |
| ルポ | rupo | repo(rtage) | reportage | French |
| リュックサック | ryukkusakku | Rucksack | backpack, rucksack | German |
| サービス | sābisu | service | service, often used to describe something as being free of charge | English |
| サボる | saboru | sabo(tage) + -ru (Japanese verb ending) | to slack off, to shirk one's duties | French + Japanese |
| サド | sado (abbr. "S") | sadiste | sadist | French |
| サイドブレーキ | saido burēki | side brake | hand brake, parking brake, emergency brake | English |
| サイダー | saidā | cider | a kind of soda unrelated to actual cider | English |
| サイン | sain | sign | signature, autograph | English |
| サインペン | sainpen | sign pen | marker, Trade name of Pentel's | English |
| サンドイッチ or サンド | sandoitchi, sando | sand(wich) | sandwich | English |
| サンドバッグ | sandobaggu | sandbag | punching bag | English |
| サラダ | sarada | salada or salad | salad | Portuguese or English |
| サラリーマン | sararīman | salaried man | salaryman: a salaried office/white collar worker | English |
| セックス | sekkusu | sex | sexual intercourse | English |
| セフレ | sefure | se(x) + frie(nd) | casual sexual partner | English |
| セクハラ | sekuhara | sex(ual) hara(ssment) | sexual harassment | English |
| セメダイン | semedain, Cemedine | ceme(nt) dyne | glue, adhesive. A genericized trademark of Cemedine Co., Ltd. | English |
| センス | sensu | sense | understanding of subtleties | English |
| セレブ | serebu | celeb(rity) | a rich person, whether or not they are famous | English |
| セツナ or 剎那 | setsuna | क्षण (kṣaṇa) | moment | Sanskrit via Chinese |
| シャボン玉 | shabondama | xabon ("soap" in Old Spanish) + 玉 (tama, "ball") | soap bubble | Spanish + Japanese |
| シャープペンシル or シャーペン | shāpu penshiru or shāpen | Shar(p) pencil | mechanical pencil (referring to Sharp, a manufacturer) | English |
| シャッターチャンス | shattā-chansu | shutter + chance | the perfect opportunity to take a photograph | English |
| シーエム | shīemu | C.M. ("commercial message") | television commercial | English |
| シール | shīru | seal | sticker, decal | English |
| シルバーシート | shirubā shīto | silver seat | priority seating on public transportation. ("Silver" refers to the hair of elderly passengers.) | English |
| シュークリーム | shūkurīmu | chou (à la) crème | a cream puff | French, English |
| シュプール | Shupūru | spoor | trail from/for skis | Dutch |
| ソフト | sofuto | soft(ware) | video game console or computer software; also used to describe tasks or work (such as design) requiring imagination, foresight, and intuition | English |
| ソフトクリーム | sofuto kurīmu or softcream | soft (ice) cream | soft serve (ice cream) | English |
| ソーラーシステム | sōrā shisutemu | solar system | a solar battery | English |
| すべた or スベタ | subeta | espada ("spade") | unattractive woman | *Portuguese / Spanish |
| スイートルーム | suīto rūmu | suite room | a suite in a hotel | English |
| スケボー | sukebō | ska(te)bo(ard) | skateboard | English |
| スケルトン | sukeruton | skeleton | translucent | English |
| スキー | sukī | ski | (noun) skiing | English |
| スキンシップ | sukinshippu | skin + -ship | skinship (bonding through physical contact) | English |
| スコップ | sukoppu | schop | trowel, spade, shovel | Dutch |
| スマート | sumāto | smart | slim, stylish, well-dressed, cool, handsome | English |
| スマホ | sumaho | sma(rt) + (p)ho(ne) | smartphone | English |
| スムーズ | sumūzu | smooth (transaction) | When a plan or transaction happens without incident | English |
| スーパー | sūpā | super(market) | supermarket | English |
| スパッツ, スパッツタイツ | supattsu, supattsu taitsu | spats, spats tights | tights (US), leggings | English |
| スペル | superu | spell | (noun) spelling | English |
| スピン | supin | spin | a ribbon or tassel on a book | English |
| スポイト | supoito | spuit | syringe, dropper | Dutch |
| スリーサイズ | surī saizu | three size | three primary female body measurements (bust, waist, hips) | English |
| スター | sutā | st ar | star | English |
| スタイル | sutairu | style | body shape; style | English |
| ステップ | suteppu | st ep | step | English |
| ストライキ or スト | sutoraiki or suto | strike or st(rike) | labor strike | English |
| ストレートティー | sutorēto tī | straight tea | black tea without milk or lemon | English |
| ストーブ | sutōbu | stove | space heater | English |
| スーツアクター | sūtsu akutā | suits actor | suit actor, an actor who performs wearing a cartoon-character costume | English |
| タバコ, たばこ or 煙草 | tabako | tabaco | tobacco, cigarette | *Portuguese / Spanish |
| タイムオーバー | taimu ōbā | time over | when a time limit has been reached | English |
| タイムリー | taimurī | timely (hit) | a clutch hit (in baseball), on time | English |
| タオルケット | taoru ketto | towelket (towel + (blan)ket) | a type of blanket made of a material similar to a beach or bath towel | English |
| タレント | tarento | talent, talento | TV personality/celebrity | English / Spanish |
| テーマ | tēma | Thema | theme | German |
| テンキー | tenkī | ten key | numeric keypad | English |
| てんぷら or 天ぷら | tenpura | tempero & têmpora | tempura. Conflation of Portuguese tempero ("seasoning") and têmpora ("ember days", a Catholic holiday). | Portuguese |
| テンション | tenshon | tension | a state of excitement | English |
| テレビ | terebi | televi(sion) | television | English |
| テレビゲーム | terebi gēmu | televi(sion) game | video game | English |
| テレフォン | terefon | telephone | telephone, phone | English |
| テレカ | tereka | tele(phone) ca(rd) | prepaid card for using public telephones | English |
| ティーンエージャー | tīn'ējā | teenager | teenager, teen | English |
| トーチカ | tōchika | точка (tochka, meaning 'point') | bunker | Russian |
| トイレ(ット) | toire(tto) | toile(t) | toilet, bathroom, washroom, restroom | English |
| トンカツ | tonkatsu | ton (豚, pork) + katsu (from the English cutlet) | pork cutlet | English |
| トップページ | toppu-pēji | top + page | home page, start page | English |
| トラブル (noun), トラブる (verb) | toraburu | trouble | (noun) (legal) trouble, a dispute or altercation; (verb) to encounter or experience trouble, to break down or not function as expected (e.g., a device) | English |
| トラックメーカー | torakkumēkā | track maker | music producer | English |
| トランプ | toranpu | trump(s) | playing cards | English |
| トレーナー | torēnā | trainer | sweatshirt | English |
| トレーニングパンツ | torēningu pantsu | training pants | pants for toddlers or babies; diaper | English |
| ツイッター | tsuittā | twitter apps | English | |
| ウィンカー or ウインカー | winkā or uinkā | winker | turn signal, a.k.a. blinker or indicator on an automobile | English |
| ウーパールーパー | ūpārūpā or WuperRuper | (s)uper | an axolotl | English |
| ヴァージンロード | vājin rōdo | virgin road | the aisle (in a Western-style or Christian wedding ceremony, as followed by the bridal procession) | English |
| ワイドショー | waido shō | wide show | talk show | English |
| ワイシャツ or Yシャツ | wai shatsu | Y (< "white") shirt | dress shirt (of any color) | English |
| ワンパターン | wan patān | one pattern | of (artificial or boring) uniformity or conformity, lacking of (spontaneous) variation. Used to describe behavior and responses as well as objects. Being "in a rut" | English |
| ワンピース | wan pīsu | one piece | (a single-piece) dress | English |
| ワープロ | wāpuro | wor(d) pro(cessor) | word processor | English |
| ウォシュレット | woshuretto | washlet (wash+(toi)let) | a toilet with a built-in bidet (a genericized trademark of Toto) | English |
| ヨット | yotto | yacht | a sailboat or yacht | English |
| ヤンエグ | yan egu | youn(g) ex(ecutive) | young executive | English |
| ヨード | yōdo | jood | iodine | Dutch |
| ヨードチンキ | yōdo chinki | joodtinctuur | tincture of iodine | Dutch |
| ユニットバス | yunitto basu | unit bath | modular bath, prefabricated bath | English |
| Uターンラッシュ | yūtān rasshu | U-turn rush | the rush of traffic and people, and attendant traffic jams and crowding of transportation facilities, that occurs as everyone returns home after extended holidays, esp. New Year's, Golden Week, and the summer o-bon week. | English |
| ザイル | zairu | Seil (meaning 'rope') | rope (used in a climbing context, in preference to the general term 'rōpu') | German |
| ゼミナール or ゼミ | zemināru or zemi | Seminar or Semi(nar) | seminar | German |
| ゼン or 禅 | zen | ध्यान (dhyāna) | a meditation | Sanskrit via Chinese |
| ゼロ | zero | zéro | zero | French / Italian / Latin |
| トマト | tomato | tomato | tomato | Nahuatl |
| ズボン | zubon | jupon (meaning "petticoat") | trousers (UK), pants (US) | French |
See also
- List of Japanese Latin alphabetic abbreviations
- List of English words of Japanese origin
- Engrish
- Japanese abbreviated and contracted words
- Japanese words of Portuguese origin
- Japanese words of Dutch origin
Notes
- "Depachika". Japan National Tourism Organization. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
- Takie Sugiyama Lebra; Henshall, Kenneth G. (November 2000). "Review of Dimensions of Japanese Society: Gender, Margins and Mainstream by Kenneth G. Henshall". The Journal of Asian Studies. The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 59, No. 4. 59 (4): 1019–1020. doi:10.2307/2659245. JSTOR 2659245.
References
- Takashi Ichikawa, et al. (1998). Sanseidō New Modern Dictionary (三省堂現代新国語辞典, Sanseidō-gendai-shin-kokugo-jiten), Tokyo, Japan: Sanseido Co., Ltd. ISBN 4-385-14034-0.
External links
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