Hinduism in Mongolia

Hinduism in Mongolia is a minority religion; it has few followers and only began to appear in Mongolia in the late twentieth century.[1] According to the 2010 and 2011 Mongolian census, the majority of people that identify as religious follow Buddhism (86%), Shamanism (4.7), Islam (4.9%) or Christianity (3.5). Only 0.5% of the population follow other religions.[2]

Hinduism In Mongolia
Om symbol
Total population
0.5% of religious Mongolians follow a religion other than Buddhism, Shamanism, Islam or Christianity.
Languages
Mongolian
Religion
Hinduism

During the twentieth century, The socialist Mongolian People's republic restricted religious practices and enforced atheism across the country.[3] The fall of the communist regime in the late '90s signalled the beginning of an era of religious pluralism and experimentation.[3] Mongolians began practising Hinduism and other world religions and spiritualities including Mormonism and Christianity.[4]

Spiritual congregations that teach Hindu philosophies including The International Society for Krishna Consciousness, The Art of Living foundation and the Ananda Marga organisation operate in Ulaanbataar.[5] Practices that gain inspiration from Hinduism such as Patanjali Yoga and spiritual vegetarianism are practised in Mongolia; and according to Saskia Abraahms-Kavunenko, Mongolian Buddhists have begun to incorporate Hindu spirituality and concepts into their Buddhist customs.[6] Hindu symbols have influenced Mongolian myth, legend, culture and tradition.[7]

History
The expansion of the Mongol Empire from 1206 to 1294.

Hinduism in the Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire was religiously tolerant.[8] Genghis Khan was open to religious diversity and the nations that Genghis Khan conquered continued to practice their own native religions.[9]  For this reason, Buddhism, Shamanism, Islam and Christianity were all reportedly practised under the Mongolian emperor.[10] Genghis Khan did not invade India; He saw India as a "brother" or a fellow child of God and refrained from conquering Indian land to remain noble in Heaven's eye.[11] As the empire did not extend into India, Hinduism was not a major religion of the Mongol Empire.[12]

Hindu Allusions In Mongolia History

Mongolia is a Buddhist majority nation.[13] According to author Sharad Soni, because of this Mongolia and India are spiritual neighbours.[14] Buddhism derived from Hinduism and was originally a Hindu reformist movement. Buddha himself was a Hindu Prince.[15] Many of the Hindu allusions, gods, deities and practices are present in Buddhist beliefs.[16] Hinduism in Mongolia is prevalent and understood because Mongolian History and belief systems contain many Hindu allusions. For example, the Grand Lama of Mongolia in the 1500s was said to be an incarnation of the Hindu and Buddhist god Maitreya; Mongolians worship the Mahakala as a manifestation of the Hindu god Shiva.[17]

Hinduism In the Mongolian Peoples Republic

Preceding the shift to communism Mongolia's political system and culture intersected with Buddhist systems and practices.[18] The soviet-style Mongolians People Republic repressed religious freedom.[3] The republic destroyed monasteries and religious symbols and enforced the public to adopt atheism.[3] As stated by academic Evan Marie-Dominique, Following the era of spiritual oppression, the collapse of the communist regime in 1999 saw Mongolia return to its religious identity.[3] Buddhism returned to being Mongolia's predominant religion. Since 1990, Mongolians have begun to experiment with other religious identities and collectives.[19]

Hinduism In Mongolian Myth and Legend

The Hindu God Shiva
A Statue of the Hindu God Shiva On the river bank of the Ganges in Rishikesh, India.

According to Berthold Laufer, in Mongolian mythology, an inspirational dream featuring the Hindu God Shiva instigated the conversion of the Mongol emperors to Buddhism.[20] The Myth that is narrated by Mongolian Chronicle Sanang Setsen states that the Mongolian Grand Kublai Khan summoned a monk to respond to his questions surrounding a book of Tantras. The monk did not know the answer to the Khans questions and could barely comprehend the emperors questioning. The Myth states that that night, the monk was visited in a dream by the Hindu god Shiva; In the Hindu belief system the god Shiva represents the god of inspiration and is said to be accountable for the Indian Sanskrit text the Pāṇini.

[21] Shiva produced a book of Tantras that the monk memorised during his sleep.[22] The day after being visited by the Hindu god, the monk returned  and was able to respond to all of Kublai Khans questions, resulting in his appointment by the Khan as the Holy Lama and the King of Doctrine in China, Tibet and Mongolia.[23] During this era, the monk Phagpa reshaped Mongolian courts and scriptures to more heavily reflect Tibetan Buddhism and lay the foundation of Mongolia's Buddhist future.[24]

The Ganga Lake

According to Mongolian writer Gombojav Mend-ooyo, Mongolian legend claims that the Ganga Lake in Mongolia's Sükhbaatar Province originated from two flasks of water brought by a Mongolian Nobleman from the River Ganges in India.[25] The Ganges is an influential Hindu symbol that gives one the possibility to bathe in order to renounce their sins.[26] The legends of the Ganga lake in Mongolia mirrors the Hindu belief of redemption from the Ganges, and according to the Mongolian folklore, the water from the Ganga lake has both healing and purifying qualities.[27]

Hinduism in Modern Mongolia

Hinduism is the third most practiced religion in the world and is growing by 1.9% per year.[28] According to the Yearbook of International Religious Demography records of 2014 today, 98.3% of the worlds Hindu's live in South Asia.[29] Hinduism is an umbrella term that refers to many diverse groups that direct their practice towards different gods, and different scriptures. In Mongolia, societies and practices that refer to certain aspects of Hinduism are growing.

Mongolia Buddhist Art in the Gandan Monastery in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

The Mongolian religious revival

The fall of the Mongolian People's Republic in 1990 ended an era of enforced atheism and the Mongolian people's national and cultural interest in religion was reignited.[30] During its rule, The Soviet inspired government destroyed an estimated 700 Buddhist monasteries, as well as an unknown number of religious congregations and buildings.[31]  There was also a decline of known religious custodians and practitioners.[32] According to Saskia Abrahms-Kavunenko, the lack of formalised Buddhist institutions and practitioners resulted in religious insecurity and uncertainty in Mongolia, that when paired with the resurgence of religiosity enabled the growth of trans-local religious and spiritual groups in the capital.[33] The International Society for Krishna consciousness, the Sri Sri Ravi Shankar collective and the Ananda Marga organisation are popular congregations that explore Hindu spirituality and philosophies in Ulaanbaatar.[34] Some Mongolians fill gaps in their understandings of Buddhism with the alternative religious discourses, ideas and practices that they learn from these spiritual groups.[35] In a study conducted by Abrahms-Kavunenko, one-third of the Mongolian Buddhists that she interviewed had attended at least one of Sri Sri's Hindu spiritual retreats.[36] Patanjali Yoga and vegetarian diets, both important Hindu values have also become normalised characteristics of Mongolian Buddhism.[37] Due to the philosophical similarities between Hindu and Buddhist concepts including, for example, reincarnation, Karma and meditation, Buddhist Mongols since 1990 have begun to incorporate Hindu spiritual ideas and practices into their Buddhist philosophies to fill the explanatory gaps in their understanding of Buddhism.[38]

The Practices of Mongolian Hindus

Hinduism is a minority religion in Mongolia; there are no formalised nationwide events or celebrations. Due to the influx of Hindu based philosophical societies and spiritual congregations in Ulaanbaatar, aspects of Hindu spirituality and practice are noticeable in the capital.[39]

Vegetarianism in Mongolia

Mongolian diets traditionally contain a lot of meat and livestock produce.[40] The Hindu-based spiritual group's Ananda Marga and the Art of Living preach Vegetarian lifestyles because it helps attendees attain a higher spiritual state.[5] The Ananda Marga collective opened the first Vegetarian restaurant in Ulaanbaatar in 2006, since then more than ten vegetarian restaurants that are associated with Hindu spiritual collectives have opened.[41]

Hindu Literature in Mongolia

Texts that explore Hindu spiritual philosophies are not uncommon in Mongolia. Based on an ethnographic study conducted in Ulaanbaatar, Abrahms-Kavunenko claims that in Mongolian bookstores texts written by the Hindu guru Osho and by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar are often found in the best sellers aisle.[42]

The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi addressing the gathering at the Community Reception and Yoga Event, organised by "Art of Living", in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia on May 17, 2015

Meditation in Mongolia

Hindu spiritual groups such as the Art of living organisation and the Hare Krishna propagate meditation through the Hindu-based philosophical framework that views meditation as an instrument to achieve a greater degree of self-awareness.[43]

Patanjali Yoga In Mongolia

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar's retreats incorporate and teach the ideas of Patanjali yoga.[44] A yogic system that is based on Hindu sutras and thought and that explores the relationship between matter and spirit.[45] One-third of Mongolian Lay Buddhists have attended at least one of Sri Sri Ravi Shankar's retreats and thus are familiar with the Patanjali philosophy. It is easy to find Yoga centres in Ulaanbaatar.[46]


Religious tolerance in Mongolia

By law, the Mongolian government ensures religious freedom and the separation of religious institutions and the state.[47] Religious collectives in Mongolia must be registered by authorities. According to the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHR), Smaller religious organisations and institutions in Mongolia have reported that they face discrimination when applying to register to the authorities as an official religious collective.[48] Other minority groups claim that they face similar problems when trying to renew past registrations. Unregistered religious collectives and minority religious groups claim to be disproportionately harassed by government officials, tax collectors and police for no identifiable legal reason.[49]

Hindu Congregations and Societies In Modern Mongolia

Hare Krishna in Mongolia
Krishna tells Gita to Arjuna. Devotees of the Hare Krishna worship Krishna as the One Supreme form of God.

The first congregation In Mongolia that practiced Hindu beliefs and that attempted to become a government registered society is a Krishna collective in Mongolia's Capital Ulaanbaatar.[50] According to Graham M.Schewig, Krishna Consciousness is a branch of Hinduism that originates from the Hindu sect Vaishnavism and centres around the worship of the Hindu deity Vishnu, or Krishna.[51] The Mongolian Krishna society is a branch of The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKON), or the Hare Krishna movement.[52]

Hare Krishna was first brought to Mongolia in 1999 by Lakshmi Narayana; who was a devoted ISKCON senior who travelled as a missionary from East Siberia to Mongolia in order to run a series of public Hare Krishna programs.[53] According to ISKON, Many Mongolian's showed an immediate interest in the practice; Local devotees began hosting their own weekly worship sessions, and upon the translation of Srila Prabhupada's spiritual texts into Mongolian the congregation reached a wider audience.[54]] As of 2009, the Hare Krishna spiritual practice has 25 devotees with more undergoing training in India, as well as many students that practice Krishna Consciousness. The congregation plan to expand and become a government registered society.[55]

Hare Krishna Temples

In 2009 the society attempted to become a registered society under the Mongolian government, the government accepted the request upon the condition that the congregation build an official temple. In 2009 ISKON announced the plan to construct a Vedic temple in Ulaanbaatar. Before the proposed construction of the temple, the society held weekly sessions in a local yurt.[56] In 2009 ISKON stated that the funding of the temple would be a challenge as it relied on donations, there have been no updates on the progression of the temple since this announcement.

The Art Of Living

The Art of Living foundation is a spiritual, educational and humanitarian movement that was founded by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar in 1981.[57] The organisation operates in 152 countries and propagates Sri Sri Ravi Shankar's philosophy of peace and compassion.[58] Ravi Shankar teaches the essence of spirituality and promotes Hindu values, practices, systems and traditions.[59] The Art of living is not a religious organisation;  It a spiritual one that borrows Hindu practices such as yoga, puja and chanting and Hindu values such as gratitude, love, belongingness and compassion.[60]

Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, in Bangalore on September 23, 2014 (cropped)

An Art Of Living (AOL) class was first held in Ulaanbaatar in 1995.[61]  The Meditation centre in Mongolia is currently training over one hundred teachers how to conduct courses conceptualised by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, and over one million Mongols have attended at least one Art Of living course or retreat.[62] A Mongolian interviewee of writer Narayani Ganesh who attends the Art Of Living courses affirmed that he did not give up Buddhism to adopt Sri Sri Ravi Shankar's philosophies; that instead, the two systems complement each other.[63]  According to Saskia Abrahms-Kavunenko, one in three Lay Buddhists have attended at least one of Art Of Living retreats.[64] Sri Sri Ravi Shankar has visited Mongolia three times, each time he has been greeted with an audience of between Three thousand and Five thousand people.[65] An international Art Of Living Ashram is being built on a site near Ulaanbataar.[66] According to Narayani Ganesh, the Art of Living spiritual organisation has been successful in former soviet countries such as Russia, Poland and Mongolia that lack spiritual guidance due to the years of religious repression.[67]


Ananda Marga

Ananda Marga is a socio-spiritual organisation that was founded by Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar in India in 1955.[68] Ananda Marga is a Hindu-based philosophical and yogic system.[69] It does not worship a deity but has selected certain teachings of Hindu origin to form its philosophy.[70] Ananda Marga is recognised as a religious denomination of Hinduism and propagates personal-development and the improvement of society.[71]

Didi Ananda Kalika, formerly known as Gabrielle Dowling, is an Ananda Marga nun that moved to Ulaanbaatar in 1993 where she opened an orphanage and began practising Ananda Marga spirituality.[72] The lotus children's school is an orphanage in Ulaanbaatar that promotes Ananda Magara spirituality.[73] Didi Ananda Kalika also runs the Ananda Yoga Centre, Mongolia where they teach yoga, meditative practices and Ananda Marga ideologies.[74] Didi Ananda Kalika opened the first Vegetarian restaurant in Ulaanbaatar named the Ananda Cafe in 2006 following the Ananda Marga philosophical values and spiritual movement that promotes vegetarianism.[75]

References
  1. Mongolianembassy.org.au. 2020. About Mongolia – Embassy Of Mongolia In Australia. [online] Available at: <https://mongolianembassy.org.au/about-mongolia/> [Accessed 14 October 2020].
  2. Mongolianembassy.org.au. 2020. About Mongolia – Embassy Of Mongolia In Australia. [online] Available at: <https://mongolianembassy.org.au/about-mongolia/> [Accessed 14 October 2020].
  3. Marie-Dominique, Evan. “Ritual Efficiency or spiritual quest? Buddhism and modernity in Post-communist Mongolia.” Brill's Tibetan Studies Library : Revisiting Rituals in a Changing Tibetan World. Leiden: BRILL. 2012 Accessed September 10, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.
  4. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2012, ‘Religious “Revival” After Socialism? Eclecticism and Globalisation Amongst Lay Buddhists in Ulaanbaatar’ Inner Asia, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 279–297.
  5. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  6. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2012, ‘Religious “Revival” After Socialism? Eclecticism and Globalisation Amongst Lay Buddhists in Ulaanbaatar’ Inner Asia, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 279–297. Pp292
  7. Laufer, Berthold. "Inspirational Dreams in Eastern Asia." The Journal of American Folklore 44, no. 172 (1931): 208-16. Accessed September 11, 2020. doi:10.2307/535842.
  8. Prawdin, M 2017, The Mongol Empire  : Its Rise and Legacy , First edition., Taylor and Francis, London, doi: 10.4324/9781315133201. Ppxi
  9. Atwood, C 2004, ‘Validation by holiness or sovereignty: religious toleration as political theology in the Mongol world empire of the thirteenth century’ International History Review, vol. xxvi, no. 2, pp. 237–256, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/37955356/.
  10. Atwood, C 2004, ‘Validation by holiness or sovereignty: religious toleration as political theology in the Mongol world empire of the thirteenth century’ International History Review, vol. xxvi, no. 2, pp. 237–256, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/37955356/.
  11. Prawdin, M 2017, The Mongol Empire  : Its Rise and Legacy , First edition., Taylor and Francis, London, doi: 10.4324/9781315133201. Pp198
  12. Prawdin, M 2017, The Mongol Empire  : Its Rise and Legacy , First edition., Taylor and Francis, London, doi: 10.4324/9781315133201. Pp198
  13. Wallace, V 2010, September 13, ‘Buddhism in Mongolia’ Buddhism, Oxford University Press, doi: 10.1093/obo/9780195393521-0111.
  14. Nyamdavaa, Oidov. "Ancient Cultural, Ethnic And Religious Ties Between Mongolia And India." World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues 19, no. 4 (2015): 150-59. Accessed September 11, 2020. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48505253.
  15. Issitt, Micah Lee, and Main, Carlyn. 2014. Hidden Religion: the Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC. Accessed September 11, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.
  16. Issitt, Micah Lee, and Main, Carlyn. 2014. Hidden Religion: the Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, LLC. Accessed September 11, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.
  17. Eliot, Charles., 2019. HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM. 3rd ed. [Place of publication not identified]: OUTLOOK Verlag, pp.329, 330.
  18. Sihlé, Nicolas. 2020. "Buffetrille Katia (Ed.), Revisiting Rituals In A Changing Tibetan World. Leiden, Brill, 2012, Vii-386 P., ISBN 978 90 04 23217 4". Journals.Openedition.Org. https://journals.openedition.org/emscat/2682.
  19. Mongolia's religious revival: Many Mongolians are embracing religion again following decades of communist rule [online]. World News Australia (SBS Melbourne); Time: 18:42; Broadcast Date: Monday, 18th July 2011;Duration: 2 min., 28 sec. Availability: <https://search-informit-com-au.ezproxy1.library.usyd.edu.au/documentSummary;dn=TEX20112901004;res=TVNEWS> [cited 08 Sep 20]
  20. Laufer, Berthold. “Inspirational Dreams in Eastern Asia.” The Journal of American Folklore 44, no. 172 (April 1, 1931): 208–216.
  21. Laufer, Berthold. “Inspirational Dreams in Eastern Asia.” The Journal of American Folklore 44, no. 172 (April 1, 1931): 208–216.
  22. Laufer, Berthold. “Inspirational Dreams in Eastern Asia.” The Journal of American Folklore 44, no. 172 (April 1, 1931): 208–216.
  23. Bangdel, D. and Huntington, J., 2003. The Circle Of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art. Chicago, Ill: Serindia Publications, pp.45,46.
  24. Bangdel, D. and Huntington, J., 2003. The Circle Of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art. Chicago, Ill: Serindia Publications, pp.45,46.
  25. "GANGA RIVER, GANGA LAKE, FOLKTALES AND POETRY: THE FIVE OF US". 2020. Mend-Ooyo.Mn. http://www.mend-ooyo.mn/news/219.html.
  26. Garcia, A 2017, ‘Hinduism, the Buddha, & the Ganges’ Dig Into History, vol. 19, no. 2.
  27. "GANGA RIVER, GANGA LAKE, FOLKTALES AND POETRY: THE FIVE OF US". 2020. Mend-Ooyo.Mn. http://www.mend-ooyo.mn/news/219.html.
  28. Yearbook of International Religious Demography 2014 : Yearbook of International Religious Demography 2014, BRILL, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/usyd/detail.action?docID=1786624. Created from usyd on 2020-09-08 00:46:13.
  29. Yearbook of International Religious Demography 2014 : Yearbook of International Religious Demography 2014, BRILL, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/usyd/detail.action?docID=1786624. Created from usyd on 2020-09-08 00:46:13.
  30. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2012, ‘Religious “Revival” After Socialism? Eclecticism and Globalisation Amongst Lay Buddhists in Ulaanbaatar’ Inner ASIA, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 279–297, doi: 10.1163/22105018-90000005.
  31. Goingrus.com. 2020. Temples And Monasteries In Ulan Bator. [online] Available at: <https://goingrus.com/info/en/cities/ulan-bator/temples-and-monasteries-in-ulan-bator> [Accessed 16 November 2020].
  32. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2012, ‘Religious “Revival” After Socialism? Eclecticism and Globalisation Amongst Lay Buddhists in Ulaanbaatar’ Inner ASIA, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 279–297, doi: 10.1163/22105018-90000005.
  33. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2012, ‘Religious “Revival” After Socialism? Eclecticism and Globalisation Amongst Lay Buddhists in Ulaanbaatar’ Inner ASIA, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 279–297, doi: 10.1163/22105018-90000005.
  34. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  35. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2012, ‘Religious “Revival” After Socialism? Eclecticism and Globalisation Amongst Lay Buddhists in Ulaanbaatar’ Inner ASIA, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 279–297, doi: 10.1163/22105018-90000005.
  36. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  37. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  38. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2012, ‘Religious “Revival” After Socialism? Eclecticism and Globalisation Amongst Lay Buddhists in Ulaanbaatar’ Inner ASIA, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 279–297, doi: 10.1163/22105018-90000005.
  39. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2012, ‘Religious “Revival” After Socialism? Eclecticism and Globalisation Amongst Lay Buddhists in Ulaanbaatar’ Inner ASIA, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 279–297, doi: 10.1163/22105018-90000005.
  40. Sebastia, B 2017, Eating traditional food : politics, identity and practices , Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa Business, London ;, doi: 10.4324/9781315643410.
  41. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  42. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  43. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  44. ‘Sri Sri Ravi Shankar And The Art of Living Foundation Host “Yoga: A New Dimension” To Celebrate First International Day of Yoga’ 2015, Politics & Government Business.
  45. White, DG 2014, The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali : a biography , Princeton University Press, Princeton.
  46. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  47. Refugees, U., 2020. Refworld | 2016 Report On International Religious Freedom - Mongolia. [online] Refworld. Available at: <https://www.refworld.org/docid/59b7d8734.html#:~:text=The%20constitution%20provides%20for%20%22freedom,of%20state%20and%20religious%20institutions.> [Accessed 14 October 2020].
  48. Refugees, U., 2020. Refworld | 2016 Report On International Religious Freedom - Mongolia. [online] Refworld. Available at: <https://www.refworld.org/docid/59b7d8734.html#:~:text=The%20constitution%20provides%20for%20%22freedom,of%20state%20and%20religious%20institutions.> [Accessed 14 October 2020].
  49. Refugees, U., 2020. Refworld | 2016 Report On International Religious Freedom - Mongolia. [online] Refworld. Available at: <https://www.refworld.org/docid/59b7d8734.html#:~:text=The%20constitution%20provides%20for%20%22freedom,of%20state%20and%20religious%20institutions.> [Accessed 14 October 2020].
  50. Smullen, M., 2009. Mongolian Devotees Pave The Path To Their First Krishna Temple. [online] ISKCON News. Available at: <https://iskconnews.org/mongolian-devotees-pave-the-path-to-their-first-krishna-temple,1476/> [Accessed 13 October 2020].
  51. Goswami, TK & Schweig, GM 2012, A living theology of Krishna Bhakti the essential teachings of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Oxford University Press, New York;
  52. ISKCON - The Hare Krishna Movement. n.d. Home - ISKCON - The Hare Krishna Movement. [online] Available at: <https://www.iskcon.org/> [Accessed 13 October 2020].
  53. Smullen, M., 2009. Mongolian Devotees Pave The Path To Their First Krishna Temple. [online] ISKCON News. Available at: <https://iskconnews.org/mongolian-devotees-pave-the-path-to-their-first-krishna-temple,1476/> [Accessed 13 October 2020].
  54. Smullen, M., 2009. Mongolian Devotees Pave The Path To Their First Krishna Temple. [online] ISKCON News. Available at: <https://iskconnews.org/mongolian-devotees-pave-the-path-to-their-first-krishna-temple,1476/> [Accessed 13 October 2020].
  55. Iskcon.livejournal.com. 2009. Mongolian Vedic Temple. [online] Available at: <https://iskcon.livejournal.com/130133.html> [Accessed 13 October 2020].
  56. Iskcon.livejournal.com. 2009. Mongolian Vedic Temple. [online] Available at: <https://iskcon.livejournal.com/130133.html> [Accessed 13 October 2020].
  57. "Sri Sri Ravi Shankar". The Indian Express. 22 November 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  58. Yogapedia.com. 2020. What Is The Art Of Living? - Definition From Yogapedia. [online] Available at: <https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/8807/the-art-of-living> [Accessed 17 November 2020].
  59. Tandon, S 2016, ‘Exploring Well Being in Indian Context’ Indian Anthropologist, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 63–78.
  60. Pandya, SP 2015, ‘New Strategies of New Religious Movements: The Case of Art of Living Foundation’ Sociological Bulletin, vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 287–304, doi: 10.1177/0038022920150301.
  61. Ganesh, N., 2010. Art Of Living In Mongolia. [online] Speakingtree.IN. Available at: <https://www.speakingtree.in/article/art-of-living-in-mongolia> [Accessed 17 November 2020].
  62. Ganesh, N., 2010. Art Of Living In Mongolia. [online] Speakingtree.IN. Available at: <https://www.speakingtree.in/article/art-of-living-in-mongolia> [Accessed 17 November 2020].
  63. Ganesh, N., 2010. Art Of Living In Mongolia. [online] Speakingtree.IN. Available at: <https://www.speakingtree.in/article/art-of-living-in-mongolia> [Accessed 17 November 2020].
  64. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  65. Ganesh, N., 2010. Art Of Living In Mongolia. [online] Speakingtree.IN. Available at: <https://www.speakingtree.in/article/art-of-living-in-mongolia> [Accessed 17 November 2020].
  66. Ganesh, N., 2010. Art Of Living In Mongolia. [online] Speakingtree.IN. Available at: <https://www.speakingtree.in/article/art-of-living-in-mongolia> [Accessed 17 November 2020].
  67. Ganesh, N., 2010. Art Of Living In Mongolia. [online] Speakingtree.IN. Available at: <https://www.speakingtree.in/article/art-of-living-in-mongolia> [Accessed 17 November 2020].
  68. Crovetto, H 2008, ‘Ananda Marga and the Use of Force’ Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 26–56, doi: 10.1525/nr.2008.12.1.26.
  69. Chryssides, GD 2012, Historical dictionary of new religious movements, 2nd ed., Scarecrow Press, Lanham, MD.
  70. Academy, H., 2020. Hinduism Today Magazine. [online] Hinduismtoday.com. Available at: <https://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=621> [Accessed 16 November 2020].
  71. Academy, H., 2020. Hinduism Today Magazine. [online] Hinduismtoday.com. Available at: <https://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=621> [Accessed 16 November 2020].
  72. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
  73. Lotuschild.org. 2020. Lotus Children's Centre | A Loving Home For Vulnerable Mongolian Children.. [online] Available at: <http://www.lotuschild.org/> [Accessed 16 November 2020].
  74. Ananda Marga. [online] Available at: <https://www.anandamarga.org/> [Accessed 16 November 2020].
  75. Abrahms-Kavunenko, S 2011, 'Improvising tradition: lay buddhist experiences in cosmopolitan Ulaanbaatar', Doctor of Philosophy.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.