Paenibacillus larvae

Paenibacillus larvae is a species of bacterium, found worldwide, which causes American foulbrood, a fatal disease of the larvae of honeybees (Apis mellifera). It is a Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium,[2] which forms spores which can remain viable for at least thirty-five years.[3]

Paenibacillus larvae
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Firmicutes
Class: Bacilli
Order: Bacillales
Family: Paenibacillaceae
Genus: Paenibacillus
Species:
P. larvae
Binomial name
Paenibacillus larvae
(White, 1906) Ash et al., 1994 emend. Heyndrickx et al., 1996 emend. Genersch et al., 2006
Synonyms[1]
  • Bacillus larvae White, 1906
  • Bacillus pulvifaciens Nakamura, 1984
  • Paenibacillus pulvifaciens (Nakamura, 1984) Ash et al., 1994
  • Paenibacillus larvae pulvifaciens (Nakamura, 1984) Heyndrickx et al., 1996
  • Paenibacillus larvae larvae (White, 1906) Ash et al., 1994 emend. Heyndrickx et al., 1996

Morphology

P. larvae is a rod-shaped bacterium with slightly rounded ends, approximately 2.5–5 μm long and 0.5 μm wide.[4] The spore of P. larvae is oval, approximately 0.6 μm wide and 1.3 μm long.[4]

Classification

In 1906, G.F. White first described the bacteria which caused American foulbrood, and named it Bacillus larvae.[5][6] In 1950, a bacteria isolated from bee larvae and associated with the rare disease "powdery scale" was named Bacillus pulvifaciens by Katznelson.[5] In 1993, both B. larvae and B. pulvifaciens were transferred to a new genus, Paenibacillus.[5] The two species were combined into a single species: Paenibacillus larvae in 1996,[7] remaining differentiated as two subspecies: P. larvae ssp. larvae (formerly Bacillus larvae) and P. larvae ssp. pulvifaciens (formerly Bacillus pulvifaciens).[5] In 2006, the subspecies were eliminated based on spore morphology, biochemical profile and DNA testing, and when it was also demonstrated that experimental infection of honeybee larvae with the pulvifaciens subspecies caused American foulbrood signs without causing "powdery scale".[5]

There are four strains of P. larvae, named after their enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC) sequences.[8] Strains I and II correspond to the former species of Bacillus larvae, and strains III and IV correspond to the former species of B. pulvifaciens.[9]

Epidemiology

P. larvae is found worldwide.[10] Strain ERIC I is found worldwide, whereas ERIC II is found only in Europe.[9] Strains ERIC III and IV are found in bacteriology archives and are considered practically unimportant.[7][9]

American foulbrood
Main article: American foulbrood

P. larvae causes American foulbrood in honeybees. The most virulent strain of P. larvae is ERIC II, which can cause the death of all larvae in a hive within 7 days of infecting the colony.[8]

References
  1. "Paenibacillus larvae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  2. de Graaf, Dirk C; Alippi, Adriana M; Antúnez, Karina; Aronstein, Katherine A; Budge, Giles; De Koker, Dieter; De Smet, Lina; Dingman, Douglas W; Evans, Jay D; Foster, Leonard J; Fünfhaus, Anne; Garcia-Gonzalez, Eva; Gregore, Aleš; Human, Hannelie; Murray, K Daniel; Nguyen, Bach Kim; Poppinga, Lena; Spivak, Marla; van Engelsdorp, Dennis; Wilkins, Selwyn; Genersch, Elke (2 April 2015). "Standard methods for American foulbrood research". Journal of Apicultural Research. 52 (1): 1–28. doi:10.3896/IBRA.1.52.1.11.
  3. Govan, VA; Allsopp, MH; Davison, S (May 1999). "A PCR detection method for rapid identification of Paenibacillus larvae". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 65 (5): 2243–5. doi:10.1128/AEM.65.5.2243-2245.1999. PMC 91325. PMID 10224028.
  4. Shimanuki, Hachiro; Knox, David A. (2000). "American foulbrood". Diagnosis of Honey Bee Diseases (PDF). Agriculture Handbook No. AH–690. U.S. Department of Agriculture. pp. 3–9. Retrieved 2020-02-26.
  5. de Graaf, DC; Alippi, AM; Brown, M; Evans, JD; Feldlaufer, M; Gregorc, A; Hornitzky, M; Pernal, SF; Schuch, DM; Titera, D; Tomkies, V; Ritter, W (December 2006). "Diagnosis of American foulbrood in honey bees: a synthesis and proposed analytical protocols". Letters in Applied Microbiology. 43 (6): 583–90. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.02057.x. PMID 17083701.
  6. White, Gershom Franklin (1906). The bacteria of the apiary, with special reference to bee diseases. Technical series no. 14. Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology. pp. 40–43. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.87503.
  7. Genersch, Elke (January 2010). "American Foulbrood in honeybees and its causative agent, Paenibacillus larvae" (PDF). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 103: S10–S19. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2009.06.015. PMID 19909971. Retrieved 2020-04-26.
  8. Grady, EN; MacDonald, J; Liu, L; Richman, A; Yuan, ZC (1 December 2016). "Current knowledge and perspectives of Paenibacillus: a review". Microbial Cell Factories. 15 (1): 203. doi:10.1186/s12934-016-0603-7. PMC 5134293. PMID 27905924.
  9. Tsourkas, Philippos K. (February 2020). "Paenibacillus larvae bacteriophages: obscure past, promising future". Microbial Genomics. 6 (2): e000329. doi:10.1099/mgen.0.000329. PMC 7067210. PMID 32111267.
  10. Fünfhaus, A; Göbel, J; Ebeling, J; Knispel, H; Garcia-Gonzalez, E; Genersch, E (11 June 2018). "Swarming motility and biofilm formation of Paenibacillus larvae, the etiological agent of American foulbrood of honey bees (Apis mellifera)". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 8840. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8.8840F. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-27193-8. PMC 5995878. PMID 29892084.
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