List of substances used in rituals

This page lists substances used in ritualistic context.

Psychoactive use

Entheogens

This is a list of species and genera that are used as entheogens or are used in an entheogenic concoction (such as ayahuasca). For ritualistic use they may be classified as hallucinogens. The active principles and historical significance of each are also listed to illustrate the requirements necessary to be categorized as an entheogen. The psychoactive substances are usually classified as soft drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.

Animal

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Bufotoxins	Bufo alvarius (and other Bufo spp.)	Secretion: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin (et al)	Psychedelic	Bufo alvarious secretion has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.[1] Controversial interpretation of Mesoamerican art.
Bullet ant venom	Paraponera clavata	Secretion: Poneratoxin	Deliriant	The Satere-Mawe people use bullet ants to get extremely painful stings in their initiation rites twenty times.[2]

Mushroom

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Dictyonema huaorani	Dictyonema huaorani	5-MeO-DMT, DMT, psilocybin	Psychedelic	Confirmed used by shamans.[3]
Fly agaric	Amanita muscaria	Muscimol, ibotenic acid	Depressant, and dissociative	Siberian shamans.[4] Scandinavia. The Soma drink of India.
Panther cap	Amanita pantherina	Muscimol, ibotenic acid	Depressant, and dissociative
Psilocybin mushroom	Psilocybe spp. (etc)	Psilocybin and psilocin; baeocystin and norbaeocystin (some species)	Psychedelic	Mazatec[5]

Plant

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
African dream herb	Entada rheedii	Seed	Oneirogen	The species is employed in African traditional medicine to induce vivid dreams, enabling communication with the spirit world. The inner meat of the seed would be either consumed directly, or the meat would be chopped, dried, mixed with other herbs like tobacco and smoked just before sleep to induce the desired dreams.[6]
African dream root	Silene undulata	Root: Possibly triterpenoid saponins	Oneirogen	Xhosa people of South Africa.[7]
Angel's trumpet	Brugmansia spp.	Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids	Deliriant	South America,[8] sometimes used as part of ayahuasca.
Ayahuasca	Banisteriopsis caapi	Bark: Harmine 0.31-0.84%,[9] tetrahydroharmine, telepathine, dihydroshihunine,[10] 5-MeO-DMT[11]	Psychedelic	South America; people of the Amazon Rainforest. UDV of Brazil and United States.
Bitter-grass	Calea ternifolia	Leaf: Caleicines and caleochromenes	Oneirogen	The Chontal people of Oaxaca reportedly use the plant, known locally as thle-pela-kano, during divination.
Bolivian torch cactus	Echinopsis lageniformis	Stem: Mescaline	Psychedelic	South America
Cannabis (and cannabis concentrates)	Cannabis spp.	Flower: Cannabinoids (THC, and CBD)	Psychedelic	Hindu religion in India, Rastafari movements, Cannabis-based religions like First Church of Cannabis or International Church of Cannabis and other various groups (see entheogenic use of cannabis)
Chacruna	Psychotria viridis	Leaf: DMT	Psychedelic	UDV of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Brazilian church. Santo Daime have used it as part of ayahuasca.
Chaliponga	Diplopterys cabrerana	Leaf: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, DMT	Psychedelic	Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru as part of ayahuasca.
Changa	A DMT/MAOI-infused smoking blend	DMT/MAOI	Psychedelic	Changa has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.
Christmasvine	Turbina corymbosa	Seed: LSA, lysergol, and turbicoryn; up to 0.03% lysergic acid alkaloids[12]	Psychedelic	Mazatec[13]
Harmal (espand)	Peganum harmala	Seed: Harmaline and other harmala alkaloids	Psychedelic	Iran and the Middle East.
Hawaiian baby woodrose	Argyreia nervosa	Seed: 0.325% ergoline derivatives of dry weight.[14]	Psychedelic	Huna shamans used them according to various oral histories.[15]
Henbane	Hyoscyamus niger	Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids	Deliriant	Ancient Greece and witches of the Middle Ages.
Iboga	Tabernanthe iboga	Root bark: Ibogaine[16]	Psychedelic	Bwiti] religion of West Central Africa. Used by Western nations to treat opioid addiction.
Jimson weed	Datura stramonium	Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids[17]	Deliriant	Algonquin, Navajo, Cherokee, Luiseño and the indigenous peoples of Marie-Galante used this plant in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties.[18][19][20] It has also been used by Sadhus of India, and the Táltos of the Magyar (Hungary).
Jurema	Mimosa tenuiflora syn. Mimosa hostilis	Root bark: 1-1.7% DMT[21] and yuremamine	Psychedelic	Used by the Jurema Cult (O Culto da Jurema) in the Northeastern Brazil.[22]
Labrador tea	Rhododendron spp.	Leaf: Ledol, some grayanotoxins	Deliriant	Caucasian peasants used Rhododendron plants for these effects in shamanistic rituals.[23]
Mad honey	Rhododendron ponticum	Nectar: Grayanotoxins	Deliriant	In Nepal, this type of honey is used by the Gurung people both for its supposed medicinal and hallucinogenic properties.[24][25]
Mexican morning glory	Ipomoea tricolor	Seed: Ergoline derivatives[26] (LSA disputed)	Psychedelic	Zapotecs[27]
Beach moonflower	Ipomoea violacea	Seed: Ergoline derivatives[26] (LSA disputed)	Psychedelic	Mazatec[13]
Nyakwána	Virola elongata	Bark, roots, leaves and flowers: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT	Psychedelic	The Yanomami people use the powdered resin as an entheogen known as nyakwána which is inhaled or "snuffed" into the nasal cavity, it contains a high concentration of 5-MeO-DMT and DMT.[28]
Peruvian torch cactus	Echinopsis peruviana	Stem: Mescaline	Psychedelic	Pre-Incan Chavín rituals in Peru.
Peyote	Lophophora williamsii	Stem: Mescaline	Psychedelic	Native American Church is known as peyotism.[29][30] Alsu used in the Oshara Tradition.
Red ucuuba	Virola sebifera	Bark: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT	Psychedelic	The smoke of the inner bark of the tree is used by shamans of the indigenous people of Venezuela in cases of fever conditions, or cooked for driving out evil ghosts.[31]
Salvia	Salvia divinorum	Leaf: Salvinorin A and other salvinorins	Psychedelic	Mazatec[32]
San Pedro cactus	Echinopsis pachanoi	Stem: Mescaline	Psychedelic	South America
Vilca	Anadenanthera colubrina	Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin.[33] DMT	Psychedelic	There have been reports of active use of vilca by Wichi shamans, under the name hatáj.[34]
Yopo	Anadenanthera peregrina	Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 7.4% bufotenin.[35] DMT	Psychedelic	Archaeological evidence of insufflation use within the period 500-1000 AD, in northern Chile, has been reported.[36]

Chemicals

Many man-made chemicals with little human history have been recognized to catalyze intense spiritual experiences, and many synthetic entheogens are simply slight modifications of their naturally occurring counterparts. Some synthetic substances like 4-AcO-DMT are prodrugs that metabolize into psychoactive substances that have been used as entheogens. While synthetic DMT and mescaline are reported to have identical entheogenic qualities as extracted or plant-based sources, the experience may wildly vary due to the lack of numerous psychoactive alkaloids that constitute the material. This is similar to how isolated THC produces very different effects than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such as cannabidiol and cannabinol.

Substance	IUPAC name	Substance effect class	Notes
2C-B	4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethanamine	Psychedelic	2C-B is used as entheogen by the Sangoma, Nyanga, and Amagqirha people over their traditional plants. It is referred to as Ubulawu Nomathotholo, which roughly translates to "Medicine of the Singing Ancestors".[37][38][39]
5-MeO-DMT	2-(5-Methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethan-2-amine	Psychedelic	See species
Bufotenin	3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-5-ol	Psychedelic	See species
DMT	2-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethanamine	Psychedelic	See species
DPT	N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)]ethyl-N-propylpropan-1-amine	Psychedelic	DPT is used as a religious sacrament by the Temple of the True Inner Light who believes that DPT and other entheogens are physical manifestations of God.[40]
Harmaline	7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole	Psychedelic	See Peganum harmala
Ibogaine	12-Methoxyibogamine	Psychedelic	See Tabernanthe iboga
LSA	(8β)-9,10-didehydro-6-methyl-ergoline-8-carboxamide	Psychedelic	See species
LSD	(6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide	Psychedelic	Used by League for Spiritual Discovery (LSD), and the Neo-American Church.
MDMA	(RS)-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine	Entactogen	Small doses of MDMA are used as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners.[41]
Muscimol	5-(Aminomethyl)-isoxazol-3-ol	Deliriant	See Amanita spp.
Psilocybin	[3-(2-Dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl] dihydrogen phosphate	Psychedelic	(See also Psilocybe spp) Prodrug for Psilocin. The Mazatec curandera María Sabina was celebrating a mushroom velada with pills of synthetic psilocybin named Indocybin synthesized by Albert Hofmann.[42]
Salvinorin A	methyl (2S,4aR,6aR,7R,9S,10aS,10bR)-9-(acetyloxy)-2-(furan-3-yl)-6a,10b-dimethyl-4,10-dioxo-dodecahydro-1H-naphtho[2,1-c]pyran-7-carboxylate	Psychedelic	See Salvia divinorum

Prodrugs

Substance	IUPAC name	Substance effect class	Notes
1A-LSD	(6aR,9R)-4-acetyl-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide	Psychedelic	Prodrug (suspected) for LSD
1P-LSD	(6aR,9R)-N,N-Diethyl-7-methyl-4-propanoyl-6,6a,8,9-tetrahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide	Psychedelic	Prodrug (suspected) for LSD
4-AcO-DMT	3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl acetate	Psychedelic	Prodrug for psilocin (found in psilocybin mushroom, see also psilocybin)

This page lists non-psychedelic psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Non-psychoactive consumption like symbolic ingestion of psychoactive substances is not mentioned here.

Non-psychedelic substances used in rituals

This is a lists of psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Some of these drugs are classified as hard drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.

Animal

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Kambo (or sapo)	Phyllomedusa bicolor	Secretion: Opioid peptides (deltorphin, deltorphin I, deltorphin II and dermorphin).[43][44][45]	Depressant	Increasing popularity in cleansing rituals and depression treatment.[46][47][48]

Plant

The plant parts are listed to prevent accidents. For example, kava roots should always be used because the leaves of the plant are known to cause hepatoxicity and death.[49]

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol	Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species	Alcohol	Depressant	During the Jewish holiday of Purim, Jews are obligated to drink until their judgmental abilities become impaired.[50][51]
Aztec tobacco	Nicotiana rustica	Leaf: up to 9% nicotine.[52] MAOI beta-carbolines.	Stimulant	Mapacho (South America)[53] and thuoc lao (thuốc lào) (Vietnam). Nicotiana rustica is used by Amazonian tobacco shamans known as tobaqueros.[54] Nicotiana rustica is a Vernacular ingredient of Ayahuasca in some parts of the Amazon.[55]
Blue water lily	Nymphaea caerulea	Flower: Aporphine, and nuciferine	Depressant	Mayans and the Ancient Egyptians.[56]
Chili pepper	Capsicum spp.	Fruit: Capsaicin	Deliriant	"While the Inca may have recognized chili’s potent spiritual medicine, they weren’t the only culture to do so. Chilies were mixed with tobacco and other plants by shamans and medicine people in pre-Columbian Central America to aid in journeys to the upper and lower worlds on behalf of mankind."[57]
Coca, coca tea	Erythroxylaceae spp.	Leaf: 0.3-1.5% cocaine[58]	Stimulant	Coca has been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Argentina, and Chile from the pre-Inca period through the present. In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tayronas of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta use to chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer.[59]
Cocoa	Theobroma cacao	Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs, etc (see full list)	Stimulant	Ritualistic practices originated among the Olmec, Maya and Mexica (Aztec).[60]
Coffee	Coffea spp.	Seed: 0.06-3.2% caffeine[61]	Stimulant	The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in Yemen's Sufi monasteries.[62] The sufi monks drank coffee as an aid to concentration and even spiritual intoxication when they chanted the name of God.[63]
Corn beer	Yeast byproduct: Corn (Zea mays), fermented	Alcohol	Depressant	The corn beer Chicha de jora was once a sacred drink of the Incas, often reserved for the most cherished of ceremonies.[64] Tesguino is a corn beer made by the Tarahumara people of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. It is brewed for local celebrations related to Holy Week. For the Tarahumara, the beer is an elixir for healing, a barter item and is considered a sacred beverage.[65]
Ilex guayusa	Ilex guayusa	Leaves: 1.73–3.48 % caffeine.[66] Theanine	Stimulant	A ritual use by the Kichua people involves drinking guayusa infusion to have foretelling dreams for successful hunting expeditions.[67] Ilex guayusa is used in ayahuasca admixtures for its healing powers.[55]
Kava	Piper methysticum	Root: 3-20% kavalactones[68]	Depressant	Kava cultures are the religious and cultural traditions of western Oceania which consume kava.
Khat	Catha edulis	Leaf: Up to 14% cathine[69]	Stimulant	For centuries, religious leaders have consumed the leaves to stay awake during long nights of prayer.[70]
Kratom	Mitragyna speciosa	Leaves: Opioids (1–6% mitragynine, 0.01–0.04% 7-hydroxymitragynine[71])	Depressant	In Thailand, kratom was "used as a snack to receive guests and was part of the ritual worship of ancestors and gods." (Saingam et al.)[72]
Opium, Opium poppy	Papaver somniferum	Latex exudate: 0.3–25% morphine and codeine 0.5-4%[73]	Depressant	From the earliest finds, opium appears to have had ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power.[74] In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention is credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache.[75] A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies, BCE, was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus.[76][77] The Greek gods Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding them. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion.[75] The opium poppy was a magical ritual plant among the Germanic tribes.[78]
Pituri	Duboisia hopwoodii, Duboisia myoporoides, Nicotiana spp.	Nicotine, tropane alkaloids	A stimulant (or, after extended use, a depressant) chewed by Aboriginal Australians.	Some authors use the term to refer only to the plant Duboisia hopwoodii and its leaves and any chewing mixture containing its leaves.[79]
Tea	Camellia sinensis	Leaf: 0.4-9.3% caffeine and theanine 0-5-1.4%[80]	Stimulant	Tea has been drunk by Buddhist monks since the Sui Dynasty (589–618 BC) to maintain a state of “mindful alertness” during long periods of meditation. Tea ceremonies have been ritualized for centuries.
Wine	Yeast byproduct: Grape (Vitis spp.) (fermented)	Alcohol	Depressant	Wine was used in rituals and worshipped by the Egyptians[81] and the Greeks, specifically in worship of Dionysus.
Beer	Yeast byproduct: Barley ( Liquid Gold spp.) (fermented)	Alcohol	Depressant

Chemicals

Substance	IUPAC name	Substance effect class	Notes
Alcohol	Ethanol	Depressant	See Vitis spp.
Caffeine	1,3,7-Trimethylpurine-2,6-dione	Stimulant	See Coffea
Cathine	(1S,2S)-2-amino-1-phenylpropan-1-ol	Stimulant	See Catha edulis
Cocaine	Methyl (1R,2R,3S,5S)-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate	Stimulant	Coca addicts ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).[82] However, other sources claims that the coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form or as coca tea, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical to substance addiction.[83][84][85][86] See also Erythroxylum coca, and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp.
Codeine	(5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan-6-ol	Depressant	Prodrug for morphine
Kavalactones		Depressant	See Piper methysticum
Morphine	(4R,4aR,7S,7aR,12bS)-3-Methyl-2,3,4,4a,7,7a-hexahydro-1H-4,12-methanobenzofuro[3,2-e]isoquinoline-7,9-diol	Depressant	See Papaver somniferum

Sober use

Disclaimer: Salvia apiana and Bursera fagaroides do not contain any psychoactive substances at all, they are solely used for ritualistic purpose while Aztec tobacco, Morning glories, and Syrian rue (all listed in the #Psychoactive_use table), and Cacao Beans (mild) are psychoactive when consumed.

Flora

Vernacular name	Species	Use	Regions/Cultures of use
Aztec tobacco	Nicotiana rustica	Incense
Cacao bean	Theobroma cacao	Ritual offering
Copal	Bursera fagaroides	Incense
Morning glory	T. corymbosa, and I. violacea	Numerology	"indigenous ritual use indicates dose levels for T. corymbosa, and I. violacea which are far lower than that perceived as necessary to effect hallucinosis in members of modern Western cultures. In Mexico, the only place in the world where the ingestion of morning glory seeds has an established tradition of shamanic usage, a hallucinogenic dose is said to be only thirteen seeds, a ritual amount based on religious numerology rather than chemical analysis."[87]
Syrian rue	Peganum harmala	Incense	"In the Himalayas, shamans use syrian rue seeds as a magical incense, inhaling it to enter a trance state in which they can engage in sexual intercourse with divining goddesses, who are said to give them information and great healing powers (Ratsch 1998, 426-427)."[88]
White Sage	Salvia apiana	Incense

See also

• Entheogen
• Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record
• Ethnobotany
• God in a Pill?
• List of Acacia species known to contain psychoactive alkaloids
• List of plants used for smoking
• N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
• Psilocybin mushrooms
• Psychoactive cacti
• Psychoactive plant

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