Jews in Istanbul

Istanbul became one of the world’s most important Jewish centers in the 16th and 17th century.[1] In marked contrast to Jews in Europe, Ottoman Jews were allowed to work in any profession[2] and could also enter the Ottoman court. Ottoman Jews in Istanbul excelled in commerce, trade[2] and came to particularly dominate the medical profession. Despite making up only 10% of the city population, Ottoman Jews constituted 62% of licensed doctors in 1600.[1]

Waves of Jewish migration to Constantinople
Years Point of Departure Groups Reason
1460s Bavaria German and Hungarian Jews Expulsion of Jews by Duke of Bavaria Louis IX
1492-1497 Iberia Anusim and Spanish and Portuguese Jews Alhambra Decree
1520s Hungary Hungarian Jews Battle of Mohács
1550s Antwerp Anusim and Crypto Jews Desire to practice Judaism openly
1640s Poland Polish Jews Jews who were captured during Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–49 were sold as slaves, saved by Jews in Istanbul following the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–49
1850s Crimea Karaite Jews Russian massacres during the Crimean War
1860s Italy, France Italian Jews Economic opportunities in Istanbul
1900s Russia Russian Jews The Revolution of 1905

History

1453 to 1700

Before 1453, there were already functioning Karaite and Romaniote communities in Istanbul. Until 1688, the Romaniote community formed the majority in the city (55.6% of all Jews in 1608, 57% in 1623 and 27.8% in 1688).[3]

The fabric of the Ottoman Jewish society changed with waves of immigration of Ashkenazi, Sephardi and Italian Jews, who all built separate and autonomous congregations. In the 16th and 17th centuries, a significant number of congregations named “Seniora” was founded by the financial support of Gracia Mendes for the anusim from Portugal settling in Istanbul.[3]

Ashkenazi Jews continued to settle in Istanbul in the 15th, 16th, 17th[3] and 20th centuries, and despite forming only 5.9% of all Jews in the city in 1608, they were slow to assimilate among the Sephardi Jews, who came to form the majority of Jews in Istanbul by 1688.[3]

In this period, there were many Jews who entered[4] the Ottoman court. For instance, Hekim Jacob[5] first entered the Ottoman court as the personal physician to Mehmed II and later became his financial adviser, translator,[5] diplomat[4] to Venice, defterdar (treasurer) and later vizier.[5] As a result of this distinguished service, Mehmed II bestowed a tax exemption to Hekim Jacob and his descendants in the Ottoman Empire.[4]

Using their political connections, Ottoman Jewish communities also exerted political pressure on foreign countries.[4] For instance, responding to the burning of the anusim in Ancona in 1555, Gracia Mendes and Joseph Nasi convinced the Ottoman court to ban trade to Ancona[4] and transfer the Ottoman mercantile representatives to the city Pesaro.

1700–1800: Relative decline of the Ottoman Jews because of increased competition from the French

In the 18th century, the Ottoman Jews of Istanbul suffered economic disadvantages because of growing economic competition with the European-backed Christians,[6] who were able to compete unfairly through a series special advantages granted to them through capitulations[7] of the Ottoman Empire. For instance, the French settlers[6] in the city had many additional economic rights, were protected by foreign ambassadors[7] and also benefited from preferential tax rates.[7]

In spite of the economic decline of the community, local Jews still were in prominent positions. By 1800, Ottoman Jews made up 5% of the city and 27% of all licensed physicians in Istanbul.[8]

In 1700s, using the printing press, books came to be published in Spanish and Ladino.[9]

1800–1923: Conflict with Armenian and Greek minorities

In the 19th century there was a general atmosphere of tolerance between Jews and Turks.[10] However, the relations of the Jewish community with Christians were usually bad.

Greek Riots of 1821

Following the death of the Greek Patriarch, the three Jewish physicians who cared for him were lynched and the subsequent Greek rioting injured an estimated 5,000 Jews.

Armenian Riots of 1856

In 1856, a blood libel case[11] occurred at Balat, where a mob[12] of Greeks[11] and Armenians started attacking Jews[11] and looting Jewish businesses.

References
  1. M. A. Epstein, The Ottoman Jewish Communities (1980).
  2. L. Bornstein-Makovetsky, in: The Mediterranean and the Jews: Banking, Finance and International Trade (XVIth–XVIIIth Centuries) (1989), pp. 75–104.
  3. R. Mantran, Istanbul dans la seconde moitié du XVIIe siècle (1962).
  4. B. Arbel, Trading Nations, Jews and Venetians in the Early Modern Period (1995), pp. 13–28.
  5. A. Levy, The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire (1992).
  6. A. Rodrigue, French Jews, Turkish Jews, The Alliance Israélite Universelle and the Politics of Jewish Schooling in Turkey, 1860–1927 (1990).
  7. C. Issawi, The Economic History of Turkey, 1800–1914 (1980).
  8. J. McCarthy, in: A. Levy (ed.), The Jews of the Ottoman Empire (1994), pp. 380, 387.
  9. G. Nassi (ed.), Jewish Journalism and Printing Houses in the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (2001).
  10. M. Saul, in: Turkish-Jewish Encounter (2001), pp. 129–67.
  11. C. V. Findley, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire (1982), pp. 344–65.
  12. M.C. Varol, Balat-Faubourg juif d’Istabul (1989).

Further reading
  • A. Cohen & E. Simon-Pikali, Yehudim be-Veit ha-Mishpat ha-Muslemi (1993), pp. 37–52.
  • A. Cohen, Jewish Life Under Islam (1984).
  • A. Cohen, Palestine in the 18th Century (1973), pp. 249–56.
  • A. Demsky, Y. Reif & J. Tabory (eds.), These Are the Names, Studies in Jewish Onomastics (1997), pp. 7–13.
  • A. Freimann, in: ZHB, 11 (1907), 30 ff., 49 ff.
  • A.K. Offenberg, in: Studia Rosenthaliana, 3 (1969), pp. 96–112.
  • A. Levi, The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century under the Patronage of the Istanbul Committee (1992).
  • A. Levy, in: Pe’amim, 55 (1993), 38–56.
  • A. Levy, in: Yemei ha-Sahar (1996).
  • A. Levy, The Jews of the Ottoman Empire (1994), pp. 1–150, 425–38.
  • A. Levy, The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire (1992).
  • A. Rodrigue (ed.), Ottoman and Turkish Jewry: Community and Leadership (1992), pp. 87–122.
  • A. Rodrigue, French Jews, Turkish Jews, The Alliance Israélite Universelle and the Politics of Jewish Schooling in Turkey, 1860–1927 (1990).
  • A. Schochet, in: Cathedra, 13 (1979), pp. 6–9, 15, 30–37.
  • A. Shmuelevitz, The Jews of the Ottoman Empire in the Late Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (1984).
  • A. Yaari, Ha-Defus ha-Ivri be-Kushta (1967).
  • B. Arbel, Trading Nations, Jews and Venetians in the Early Modern Period (1995), pp. 13–28.
  • B. Lewis, The Jews of Islam (1984).
  • C. B. Stuczyncki, in: Pe’amim, 84 (2000), pp. 104–24.
  • C. Issawi, The Economic History of Turkey, 1800–1914 (1980).
  • C. Roth, House of Nasi, Duke of Naxos (1948), 173–82, pp. 216–9.
  • C. V. Findley, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire (1982), pp. 344–65.
  • D. Jacoby. Byzantion. (1967), pp. 167–227.
  • E. Bashan, in: Pe’amim, 48 (1991), 54–65; Y. Okon, in: Kiryat Sefer, 63 (1990–1991), pp. 1341–42.
  • E. Bashan, Sheviya u-Pedut (1980).
  • E. Benbassa, Une diaspora sépharade en transition: Istanbul XIX–XXe siècles (1993).
  • E. Eldem, The Ottoman City between East and West (1999), pp. 148, 152, 155–60, 182, 186, 189, 204.
  • F. Müge Göçek, in: A. Levy (ed.), The Jews of the Ottoman Empire (1994), pp. 705–11.
  • G. Nassi (ed.), Jewish Journalism and Printing Houses in the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (2001).
  • H. Gerber, in: Jewish Social Studies, 10 (1986), pp. 143–54.
  • H. Gerber, in: Pe’amim, 12 (1982), pp. 27–46.
  • H. Gerber, "Yehudei ha-Imperiya ha-Otmanit ba-Me’ot ha-Shesh-Esre ve-ha-Sheva-Esre", Ḥevrah ve-Kalkalah (1983).
  • H. Inalcik, Studies in Ottoman Social and Economic History (1985).
  • H.Z. Hirschberg. Religion in the Middle East (1969), pp. 119–225.
  • I. Karmi, Jewish Sites of Istanbul (1992).
  • I. Karmi, The Jewish Community of Istanbul in the 19th Century (1996).
  • J. Barnai, in: Ottoman and Turkish Jewry: Community and Leadership (1992), pp. 174–5.
  • J. Hacker, in: A Tale of Two Cities, Jewish Life in Frankfurt and Istanbul, 1750–1870 (1982), pp. 8–49.
  • J. M. Landau, Tekinalp, Turkish Patriot (1984).
  • J. McCarthy, in: A. Levy (ed.), The Jews of the Ottoman Empire (1994), pp. 380, 387.
  • L. Bornstein-Ma- kovetsky, in: A. Haim (ed.), Ḥevrah u-Kehillah (1991), pp. 3–24.
  • L. Bornstein- Makovetsky, in: Jewish Law Association Studies, 9 (1997), pp. 9–18.
  • L. Bornstein-Makovetsky, in: M. Rozen (ed.), The Last Ottoman Century and Beyond (2002), pp. 83–128.
  • L. Bornstein-Makovetsky, in: M. Rozen (ed.), Yemei ha-Sahar (1996), pp. 273–311.
  • L. Bornstein-Makovetsky, in: Michael, 14 (1997), pp. 139–70.
  • L. Bornstein-Makovetsky, in: Shevet ve-Am, 10 (1985), pp. 101–9.
  • L. Bornstein-Makovetsky, in: The Mediterranean and the Jews: Banking, Finance and International Trade (XVIth–XVIIIth Centuries) (1989), pp. 75–104.
  • L. Bornstein-Makovetsky, in: Z. Ankori (ed.), Mi-Lisbon le- Saloniki ve-Kushta (1988), pp. 69–95.
  • L. Bornstein-Makovetsky, Pinkas Beit ha- Din be-Kushta Pinkas Beit Din Issur ve-Heter, 1710–1903 (1999).
  • M. A. Epstein, The Ottoman Jewish Communities (1980).
  • M. Benayahu, in: M. Stern (ed.), Umma ve-Toldoteha (1983), pp. 281–87.
  • M. Benayahu, in: Sefunot, 11 (1967–1968), pp. 187–230.
  • M.C. Varol, Balat-Faubourg juif d’Istabul (1989).
  • M. Franco, Essai sur l’Histoire des Israélites de l’Empire Ottoman (1897).
  • M. Glazer, in: International Journal of Middle East Studies, 10 (1979), pp. 375–80.
  • M. M. Weinstein, in: Studies in Bibliography and Booklore, 20 (1998), pp. 145–76.
  • M. Rozen, A History of the Jewish Community in Istanbul, The Formative Years, 1453–1566 (2002).
  • M. Rozen, Hasköy Cemetery Typology of Stones (1994).
  • M. Rozen, in: Mediterranean Historical Review, 15:1 (June 2000), pp. 72–93.
  • M. Rozen, in: Michael, 7 (1982), pp. 293–430.
  • M. Rozen, in: Turcica, 30 (1998), pp. 331–46.
  • M. Rozen, The Last Ottoman Century and Beyond, The Jews in Turkey and the Balkans 1808–1945 (2005).
  • M. Saul, in: Turkish-Jewish Encounter (2001), pp. 129–67.
  • M. Z. Benaya, Moshe Almosnino Ish Saloniki (1996)
  • P. Dumont, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire (1982), pp. 209–42.
  • R, Hacker, in: Zion, 52 (1987), pp. 25–44.
  • R. Cohen, Kushta-Saloniki-Patras (1984).
  • R. Kastoryano, Ottoman and Turkish Jews, Community and Leadership (1992), pp. 253–77.
  • R. Mantran, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire (1982), pp. 127–40.
  • R. Mantran, Istanbul dans la seconde moitié du XVIIe siècle (1962).
  • Rosanes, Togarmah; A. Galanté, Histoire des Juifs d’Istanbul, 2 vols. (1941–42).
  • S. Assaf, Mekorot u-Meḥ karim (1946), pp. 255–6.
  • S.J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (1977).
  • S.J. Shaw, in: International Journal of Middle East Studies, 10 (1979), pp. 266–77.
  • S. Sadak, in: Vidas Largas, 7 (1987), pp. 33–7.
  • S. Spitzer, in: Asufot, 8 (1994), pp. 369–86.
  • S. Tuval, Ha-Kehillah ha-Yehudit be-Istanbul, 1948–1992 (2004).
  • S. Yerasimos, in: Turcica, 27 (1995), pp. 101–30.
  • Scholem, Shabbetai Ẓevi, index; Y. Rofeh, in: Sefunot, 10 (1966), pp. 621–32.
  • T. Be’eri, in: Pe’amim, 59 (1994), pp. 65–76.
  • W. F. Weiker, Ottomans, Turks and the Jewish Polity, A History of Jews in Turkey (1992).
  • Y. Barnai & H. Gerber, in: Michael, 7 (1982), pp. 206–26.
  • Y. Barnai, in: Mikedem u-mi-Yam (1981), pp. 53–66.
  • Y. Barnai, in: S. Ettinger (ed.), Toledot ha- Yehudim be-Arẓot ha-Islam, 1 (1981); 2 (1986).
  • Y. Bartal & Y. Gafni (eds.) Eros, Erusin ve-Issurin (1998), pp. 305–34.
  • Y. Ben-Naeh, in: Cathedra, 92 (1999), pp. 65–106.
  • Y. Ben-Na’eh, in: Kehal Israel, 2 (2004), pp. 341–68.
  • Y.R. Hacker, in: Galut Achar Gola, Sefer Yovel Le-Chaim Beinart (1988), pp. 497–516.
  • Y. R. Hacker, in: Kehal Israel, 2 (2004), pp. 287–309.
  • Y. R. Hacker, in: Zion, (1997), p. 62.
  • Y. R. Hacker, in: Zion, 49 (1984), pp. 225–63.
  • Y. R. Hacker, in: Zion, 55 (1990), pp. 27–82.
  • Yaari, Sheluḥei, index; U. Heyd, in: Oriens, 6 (1953), pp. 299–314.
  • Z. Çelik, The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the 19th Century (1986), pp. 9, 21, 26, 38, 40–1.
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