Islamophobia in France

Islamophobia in France holds a particularly political significance since France has the largest proportion of Muslims in the Western world, primarily due to the migration from Maghrebi, West African, and Middle Eastern countries.[1] The existence of discrimination against Muslims is supported by socioeconomic studies [2] [3]and by the perceived segregation and alienation of Muslims within the French community.[4]

The word Islamophobie is itself subject of debate in France,[5][6][7] since it is not clear whether it designates the fear of Islam or the racism against Muslims, the first being a legal opinion and belief while the second constitutes a crime according to French law.[8] That is the reason why some authors urge to use racisme anti-musulman,[9][10] literally "anti-muslim racism", instead of Islamophobie, in order to differentiate between the distrust against Islam seen as a corpus of religious believes and the systematic hate and discrimination against Muslims.

Some French people hold a belief that Islam is opposed to secularism and modernity.[4] This establishes fear and distrust among the French public, allowing Islamophobia to manifest itself through the censorship and political repression of Muslims in France.[11] This fear is sometimes considered to originate in the country's experience with terrorism and in the belief that Muslims are unable to integrate with the French culture. [12]

According to an opinion poll, 74% of Muslims in France acknowledge that there is a conflict between living in devotion to one’s religion and living in the western society.[12] Muslim individuals’ desire to integrate has been hindered by the French fear of the unknown and reinforcement of cultural differences.[13]

In 2010 France banned face coverings including wearing the niqab. After the Charlie Hebdo shooting in January 2015, there were reports of attacks on mosques and Muslim citizens throughout the country.[14]

Two mosques and one Muslim-owned business were attacked in France in January 2015

History

According to researcher Vincent Gassier "‘institutional Islamophobia’ or ‘State Islamophobia’ doesn’t really exist in France'. But French society has been infused with Islamophobic attitudes recently. Islam was seen by many as a liberal religion especially during 'les lumieres' (18th)[11] Anti-religious views have developed through France’s historical tradition of segregation between state and church.[11]

For a long time, Muslims have been perceived as outsiders by the general French public, due to Islam’s community structure, a threat to individuality - a strong French value shaped by Laïcité.[15]

Colonial roots of Islamophobia

During the 20th century, France was a colonial power which occupied Islamic dominated regions in the Middle East and Africa.[16] The French perceived Muslims as being too attached to their religion, which would ultimately affect their ability to integrate in compliance with the Laïcité value in French society.[16] This resulted in French occupiers urging the ban of Islamic symbols, including face coverings.[16]

This experience left deeply embedded perceptions of Islam, driven by negativity, perpetuating the growth of the political right in France and their anti-Islamic views.[12] Islamophobic attitudes continue today and this can be attributed to France’s colonial roots which embodied views of segregation.[16]

Algeria–France relations

France’s experience with Algeria and their 1992 elections resulted in violence in 1993.[12] The election was cancelled on the basis that an Islamic party was going to win.[12] Realising the growth in the Islamic religion and the affect it could have on French politics, France began banning what they believed to be Islamic symbols, such as the headscarf as they were deemed dangerous to society and the following of Laïcité.[12]

September 11 and France

The 9/11 terrorist attacks flared tensions between France and Islam, similar to what has occurred in other western countries such as America and Australia, through establishing a rise in fear for non-Islamic individuals.[17] Since 9/11, French politicians are more inclined to emphasise fear-driven views of Islam onto society, perpetuating Islamophobia in France.[17]

Incidence

Two Mosques and one Muslim-owned kebab shop were attacked in France in January 2015.[18]

List of Islamophobic incidents § France

Statistics

A number of mosques have been vandalized in France over the years.[19][20] On 14 January 2015, it was reported that 26 mosques in France have been attacked since the shooting of the Charlie Hebdo newspaper in Paris.[21] Authorities closed 19 mosques suspected of separatism in 2017,[22] and another 79 mosques were closed in 2020 for the same reasons.[23]

The Observatory of Islamophobia confirmed a 34.6% decrease in Islamophobic attacks in France in 2017.[24]

In 2019, according to the French Ministry of Interior incident targeting Muslim where lower than those targeting other communities:[25] 154 anti-religious acts targeted Muslims, while those targeting Jews stood at 687 , and those against Christians was 1.052. However, the islamophobic attacks increased again in 2020 by 53%.[26]

Justice system

Fundamental rights for Muslims in France are the same than any other French citizen, making hard do introduce specific laws for some Muslims.[24] The French adherence to the concept of Laïcité is in contradiction to some radical Musim behaviors.[24] In turn, forces resisting it are unable to cope with the strength of the growth in this concept.[24] Political leaders emphasis that this is a protection of social cohesion within France, however it affects the inclusion of some Muslims.[24]

legislation impacting some religious behaviors

The objective to prevent discrimination between French citizens and to remove religious signs from public space is seen as an injustice by some Muslims.[24]

Burkini: Banned in French towns in 2016.[27]

On the 11th April 2011, French Prime Minister François Fillon banned face veils from being worn in public spaces in France other than Mosques, at home or when travelling as a passenger in a car.[27]

On 18 August 2016, Prime Minister Manuel Valls supported bans on Burkini swimwear which had been imposed in several French towns.[27]

In October 2017, France introduced an Anti-Terrorism Bill which authorised power for officials to search homes, restrict movement and close places of worship.[28] The concept behind this bill has been commended by a United Nations human rights expert who also, on the contrary, highlights the negative influence this may have over religious freedom.[28] Additionally, Fionnuala Ni Aolain has raised concerns regarding the reinforced marginalisation of Muslims in France through the introduction of the bill.[28]

In May 2019, France voted a law to extend civil servant limitations to wear religion signs to helpers attending school trips.[29] This was immediately opposed by the government on the grounds that it would be irresponsible to stigmatise a fraction of the national community and is not enforced. It can be argued that this strengthens the war against Islamic dress in France which has developed through the original Burqa and Burkini ban, further emphasising the discriminatory approach of French politics in relation to Islam.[29]

Anti-discriminatory legislation

Discriminatory acts against religious groups in France are denounced by legislature which promote equality. Some legislation and political groups which address the issue of discrimination against religious freedom in France include:

• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

  "Article X – No one may be disturbed for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law".

• The Preamble of the Constitution of 1946

  "France shall form with the peoples of her Overseas Territories a Union based upon equality of rights and privileges, without distinction as to race or religion".

• French Equal Opportunities and Anti-Discrimination Commission

In the media

Islamophobic notions are perpetuated through some media negative depiction of the Islamic religion in France.[24]

French media portrayals of Islam often depict mainstream anti-Islamic views.[30]

"...negative outlook on Islam is conveyed by the French media — something both logical, and worrying. Logical, because the media have to sell, and so they have an incentive to adopt a discourse that echoes what potential readers, TV viewers, and listeners find appealing. Worrying, because this tendency legitimizes negative stereotypes about Islam, and thus helps to anchor them solidly in French public opinion."[30]

In 2012 the French Charlie Hebdo newspaper published satirical cartoons depicting Islamic Prophet Muhammad, following a long tradition of laïcity and blasphemy against all religions.[31] These cartoons received backlash from a part of the Islamic community who claimed that this was a disrespectful portrayal of a religious figure and thus a discriminatory act against Islam.[31]

Following this publications, in 2015, some Islamist terrorist killed 12 peoples and injured 11 in the Charlie Hebdo shooting.

In employment

Islamophobia in France perpetuates discrimination toward Muslims in all aspects of life including their experience with employment. Discrimination against Islam hinders practicing Muslims' access to opportunities in the workplace. For example, Marie Anne Valfort reports that Islamic individuals are 4 times more likely to be discriminated against than those practicing other faiths.

There have been many reported cases of workplace Islamic discrimination against individuals.

“In La Rochelle (Atlantic Coast of France) ...a man’s employment was terminated by his employer after weeks of harassment for having a beard that was deemed a sign of religious extremism”.[24]

“The Coordination against Racism and Islamophobia (CRI) has reported 15 cases of anti-Muslim hate speech at work which went unreported.”

French law indicates two main guidelines regarding religion and employment.[30] The “Protection of Individuals” indicates that one’s religious beliefs must not disturb the functioning of the workplace, including views regarding hygiene and safety requirements.[30] The “Proper functioning of the firm” highlights that religion must never interfere with performance or one’s relationship with work.[30] These French policies as seen as conflicting with some integrist views of Islam, claiming that it is dismissing their to practice the religion.[30] For example, prayer breaks are disapproved and a request to not be on project with the opposite sex are denied - two practices followed by some fundamentalist Islamist.[30]

The French perceive Islam as degrading women with a lack of rights and thus believe that the practice of Islam is impossible in France as it conflicts with the country’s values.[30] This goal of equality creates fear through a belief that Islam will disturb workplaces in France through a following of chauvinistic values.[30] The view that Islam is a male chauvinistic religion perpetuates discrimination in the workplace as it leads to the perception that a woman wearing a headscarf is a symbol of oppression against females.[30]

In a study conducted by Dounia Bouzar and Lylia Bouzan presented in their book "Allah a-t-il sa place dans l’entreprise?" ("Is there room for Allah in the workplace?") French managers indicate that a covered female interviewee is a “nightmare” leading them to feel “embarrassed”.[30][32]

“...you don’t know what to say, you don’t even dare to gaze at her for fear that your expression will give you away”.[30]

The managers indicate that they decline covered Muslim female interviewees using generalised reasons regarding their job application, with attempt of steering away from Islam as the cause.[30] They indicate that a fear of not wanting the organisation to appear as supporting the oppression of women through this Islamic “symbol” (hijab) is what causes this discriminatory reaction.[30] This fear perpetuates discrimination against Muslims in the French workplace, as preconceptions automatically limit their chances of attaining employment.[30]

Islamophobic groups and notions

Great Replacement

The term "Great Replacement" was created by Renaud Camus in 2011 identifying immigration policies as the main issue affecting the shift in the demographics of France.[33]

This term has since been used as the name of the manifesto for the ChristChurch Mosque shootings.[34]

As a result, this term is becoming increasingly recognised, with white supremacist groups and right-wing politicians now using it to spread their anti-Islamic ideologies in France. Muslim immigrants and refugees are at the core of this notion, identified as the main issue being addressed.[33]

The Great Replacement strengthens the fear of Islam through focusing on Muslims as a problem, mobilising the debate about the need for military intervention.[33] This allows for the spread of Islamophobic attitudes which condone limitations on the fundamental rights of Muslims.[33]

See also

• Racism in France
• Islam in France
• Criticism of Islam
• Immigration to France

References

1. "5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
2. Valfort, Marie-Anne (2015). "Religious discrimination in access to employment: a reality" (PDF). Policy Paper. Paris: Institut Montaigne.
3. Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey Roma--Selected findings (PDF). EU-MIDIS, II. 2016.
4. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002-04-11). Muslims in the West. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148053.003.0003. ISBN 9780195148053.
5. Berrod, Nicolas. "«Islamophobie» : cinq minutes pour comprendre la polémique autour d'un terme qui divise". Le Parisien. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
6. Pétreault, Clément. "Islamophobie ou racisme anti-musulman ?". Le Point. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
7. "Islamophobie et racisme anti-musulman". MRAP. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
8. "Article 24 de la loi du 29 juillet 1881". Legifrance (in French). Retrieved 2020-12-02.
9. "Interview of Caroline Fourest in the journal l'Express". 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
10. Evano, Roger. "Islamophobie ou racisme anti-musulman, quel est l'enjeu ?". Blog médiapart. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
11. Gessier, Vincent (2010). "Islamophobia: a French Specificity in Europe?". Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge. 8.
12. Bowen, John R. (2009). "Recognising Islam in France after 9/11". Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 35 (3): 439–452. doi:10.1080/13691830802704608. ISSN 1369-183X.
13. Giry, Stéphanie (2006). "France and Its Muslims". Foreign Affairs. 85 (5): 87–104. doi:10.2307/20032072. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20032072.
14. "Charlie Hebdo terror spree spawns anti-Muslim attacks throughout France". New York Daily News. 13 January 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
15. Bertossi, Christophe, ed. (2007). European Anti-Discrimination and the Politics of Citizenship. doi:10.1057/9780230627314. ISBN 978-1-349-54412-7.
16. Ahmet Yasar, Abdulaziz (9 April 2019). "France's Islamophobia and its roots in French colonialism".
17. Rachman, Gideon (19 February 2019). "Islamophobia and the new clash of civilisations". Financial Times.
18. Henley, Jon (2015-01-08). "Muslims fear backlash after Charlie Hebdo deaths as Islamic sites attacked". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-05-16.
19. "Vandals target Paris mosque". The Guardian. 22 February 2005.
20. "Desecration of a mosque in France". Ennahar Online English. El Athir For the Press. 13 December 2009. Archived from the original on 15 December 2009. Retrieved 16 December 2009.
21. Stone, Jon (14 January 2015). "Firebombs and pigs heads thrown into mosques as anti-Muslim attacks increase after Paris shootings". independent.co.uk. Archived from the original on 21 January 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
22. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/-france-closes-mosque-for-encouraging-radicalism/1006976
23. Template:Citation Web
24. European Islamophobia report. 2017. Bayraklı, Enes; Hafez, Farid. Ankara, Turkey. ISBN 9789752459618. OCLC 1032829227.CS1 maint: others (link)
25. Ministère de l'Intérieur. "Statistiques 2019 des actes antireligieux, antisémites, racistes et xénophobes". Ministère de l'Intérieur. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
26. AA, Daily Sabah with (2021-01-29). "Islamophobic attacks in France increase by 53% in 2020". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2021-01-30.
27. Weaver, Matthew (2018-05-31). "Burqa bans, headscarves and veils: a timeline of legislation in the west". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-05-10.
28. "OHCHR | France: UN expert says new terrorism laws may undermine fundamental rights and freedoms". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 2019-05-09.
29. "French Senate votes to ban mothers who wear headscarves from accompanying children on school trips". The Independent. 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2019-05-25.
30. Valfort, Marie-Anne (2015). "Religious discrimination in access to employment: a reality". Policy Paper.
31. "Liberalism and secularism are meant to let religion flourish". The Independent. 2016-01-09. Retrieved 2019-05-30.
32. Bouzar, Dounia. Bouzar, Lylia. (2009). Allah, a-t-il sa place dans l'entreprise?. Albin Michel. ISBN 9782226193247. OCLC 966084199.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
33. "Islamophobia, racism and the 'Great Replacement'". DailySabah. Retrieved 2019-05-09.
34. Wilson, Jason (2019-03-15). "Do the Christchurch shootings expose the murderous nature of 'ironic' online fascism?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2019-05-16.