Helen Thompson Woolley

Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley (November 6, 1874 – December 24, 1947) was an American psychologist, known for her contributions to the educational sector, groundbreaking research on sex differences and rigorous research methods. Woolley's interest in scientific inquiry was prompted by the work of her father, Paul Thompson, who was an inventor. Woolley's academic achievement and resultant scholarship allowed her to pursue studies in psychology at the University of Chicago.

Helen Thompson Woolley
Born(1874-11-06)November 6, 1874
Englewood, Illinois
DiedDecember 24, 1947(1947-12-24) (aged 73)
New York, New York

Woolley's studies at the University of Chicago marked the beginning of her career in experimental and applied psychology. Her controversial dissertation, titled The Psychological Norms in Men and Women, attracted the interest as well as scrutiny of the scientific world as it was the first major piece of psychological research explicitly examining the similarities and differences of the mental traits of women and men.

Woolley's husband, Paul Woolley, was a determining force in the course of her career, as the constant relocations required by his profession as a physician limited hers academic opportunities. Following their wedding, Woolley followed Paul to Japan and subsequently the Philippines, where she started working as a researcher for the Bureau of Education, marking her first endeavour in developmental psychology. Woolley's work in education continued with her involvement in the Vocation Bureau, the Merrill-Palmer School and the Institute for Child Welfare Research at Teachers College, Columbia University.

Woolley's late life was plagued by her deteriorating mental health, which impacted her interpersonal relationships as well as occupational status. At the age of 73, she died of an aortic aneurysm in her daughter's home in Harvertown Pennsylvania.

Personal life

Family

Helen Bradford Thompson was born on November 6, 1874 in Englewood, Chicago. As the middle child of three siblings, she and her sisters were raised in a middle-class Chicago suburb. The eldest sister, Jane, attended the University of Michigan for one year but left school due to the financial burden. Lilian, the youngest sister, attended Cook County Normal School and went on to become a teacher. Their mother, Isabella Perkins Faxon was an active missionary during a time when women were expected to confine their interests to family and household activities. Woolley's father, Paul Thompson (though his name is disputed in several articles)[1][2] was a partner in a shoe manufacturing business and an inventor, producing implements such as burglar alarms, a heat regulating thermostat for a coal furnace, and a letter sorting device for the post office. Her father's work was more appealing to Woolley compared to that of her mother, sparking an interest in scientific endeavours.

Socioeconomic status

As a single-income, middle-class family, Woolley's family presumably struggled with some financial constraints. The eldest daughter, Jane, was able to attend the University of Michigan for one year however, she had to withdraw due to the family’s inability to carry the financial burden of tuition payment. However, Woolley won a scholarship to the University of Chicago as a result of her high average upon graduating from Englewood High School in 1893. Woolley's family would have been affected by The Panic of 1893, a serious economic depression in the US that started in 1893–1897. The scholarship she received allowed her to attend university with only expenses of books and travel fare. Without the scholarship, Woolley's education and career might have met the same fate as her older sister Jane.

Relationship and Travels

Woolley met her husband, Paul Gerhardt Woolley in university when she was a senior and Paul was finishing medical studies at Chicago. Soon after meeting, they were engaged and remained engaged for eight years during which time both completed their professional training. After completing their undergraduate studies, Woolley was offered a graduate fellowship and remained in Chicago while Paul left for residency at Johns Hopkins University.

After working in Massachusetts for four years, Woolley left her job and moved to Japan where Paul was working as an epidemiologist. She and Paul were married in Yokohama. Soon thereafter, they moved to the Philippines where Paul directed a laboratory. In the Philippines, Woolley began working for the Bureau of Education, performing research on childhood education and the best years for learning. While Woolley took on this project, Paul took a job in Siam (now called Thailand) doing public health work and manufacturing vaccines for smallpox and anthrax. She joined Paul once her project was done.

When Woolley became pregnant, Paul sent her home out of concern for her and the baby’s health. At six months pregnant, Woolley took a boat to the West Coast, then taking a train back to her parents’ home, arriving barely six weeks before her first daughter, Eleanor Faxon Woolley, was born (August 26, 1907). Eleanor's birth sparked Woolley's interest in child and developmental psychology.

University of Cincinnati in 1918

After spending a year in Omaha, Nebraska the family moved to Cincinnati. Paul began teaching at the medical school, while Woolley was a philosophy lecturer at the University of Cincinnati. However, during their years in Cincinnati, Woolley and Paul drifted apart. Paul eventually took on a job in Detroit running a medical testing laboratory, and Woolley left Cincinnati in 1921 to follow Paul to Detroit.

In 1924, Paul contracted tuberculosis from the diagnostic laboratory and left for a sanatorium in Pasadena, California. Paul Woolley filed for a divorce from Woolley in 1927 with the plans of marrying Millie Thompson (no relation) and eventually died in 1932. Woolley died of a cerebral hemorrhage at age 72 in Pennsylvania on Christmas Eve of 1947.

Education

Helen Woolley graduated as valedictorian from Englewood High School in 1893, with an average of 97 for the four years study.[2] Her graduation valedictory essay "The Advance Towards Individual Freedom by the Aid of Invention" reflected her inclination towards scientific contributions in social development.[2] Woolley received scholarship to the University of Chicago with her excellent high school results. During the period from 1890–1910, women only comprised 2.2% – 3.8% in post-secondary institutions. Woolley and her two sisters earning university degrees signify the importance of education in the family.[2]

Woolley was offered scholarship in both physics and psychology at University of Chicago, and accepted the psychology scholarship.[2] Upon completion of her undergraduate degree in 1897, Woolley was granted a fellowship for graduate work in psychology with James R. Angell, John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, and Henry H. Donaldson under the department of philosophy. Woolley published papers in psychology, philosophy, and neurology.[3]

Woolley received her PhD from the University of Chicago in 1900, with the highest distinction. John B. Watson graduated from the University of Chicago as well with similar course of study, but his performance was regarded as much inferior to Woolley.[2] Women who completed PhDs in 20th century were proportionate to men in receiving acceptance into professional organizations such as APA, yet their occupational status was incomparable.[2] Women’s contributions in academics were significantly under-represented, and academic positions were difficult to be obtained, especially for married women.[2]  

Upon completion of her PhD, Woolley was recognized by the Association of Collegiate Alumnae and was awarded a European Fellowship. She studied with Carl Stumpf and Arthur Konig in Berlin, and later with Eduard Tulouse and Pierre Janet in Sorbonne.[2]

Dissertation: Psychological Norms in Men and Women

Under the direction of James R. Angell, Woolley’s doctoral dissertation investigated the performance of 25 males and 25 female university students on "motor ability, skin and muscle senses, taste and smell, hearing, vision, intellectual faculties and affective processes".[2] The thesis was titled "Psychological Norms in Men and Women".  Her thesis has attracted much attention as it significantly challenged the societal standards of the time.[2] It was the first major scientific experimental research comparing the mental traits of men and women.[3] Woolley adopted the approach of comparing distributions of scores on each test between sexes instead of reporting average performance of all participants. The results supported that men presented higher average performance on motor skills tests, whereas women were better at finer sensory discrimination; women were more skilled in memory and association tasks within intellectual faculties, whereas men had advantage in tests of ingenuity. Woolley accounted the differences between sexes as the characteristics which were most beneficial evolutionarily for sexual reproduction.[2]

Helen Woolley later published her dissertation in The Mental Traits of Sex, where her work was criticized for whether women in her sample were an accurate representation of the sex in general.[2] One criticism was that college women and college men were not comparable because college women are usually of the highest intelligence in their respective families and/or driven by especially strong ambition, while college men follow a generally ordinary trajectory.[2] This was the stereotypical view of educated women during the early 20th century. However, a new class of university educated women began to enter the realms of science and social science and enthusiastically applied their expertise on social and political issues of that time.[2]

Career

The Vocation Bureau (1911-1921)

Helen Woolley was a pioneer in the practical application of developmental psychological principles. As director of the Cincinnati Vocation Bureau, appointed in 1911, she contributed significantly to the understanding of influential factors in the physical and mental development of adolescents.[2] The Vocation Bureau was responsible for the issuance of "working certificates" to children between the ages of 14 and 16 years and therefore provided a wide pool of data for Woolley to successfully conduct her research.[1] 

Woolley aimed to establish intelligence tests appropriate for adolescents and the statistical norms to accompany such tests, as well as examine the potential relationship between test and job performance.[2] Woolley compared the performance of 14-year-old subjects who had joined the workforce to subjects regularly attending school classes for the span of four years.[1] After completing an extensive data analysis with her assistant, Charlotte Fischer, Woolley did not find support for her cognitive tests; however, her project increased awareness of the utility of experimental psychology in the advancement of the public-school sector and educational policies.[2] The results of the study were subsequently published in 1926 under the name “An Experimental Study of Children at Work and in School Between the Ages of Fourteen and Eighteen Years”. The Vocation Bureau was expanded to include the testing of children in order to establish class placements.

She was additionally the first woman and first psychologist to be appointed president of the National Vocational Guidance Association in 1921.[2]

The Merrill-Palmer School (1921-1925)

In an attempt to follow her husband to Michigan, Helen Woolley accepted a position as a psychologist and assistant director at the Merrill-Palmer School in 1921.[2] The Merrill-Palmer School was a nursery school offering courses in child care. The school also represented research initiatives in early child development and attracted a great deal of attention as one of the first laboratory nursery schools in the United States.[2] Woolley's experimental work within the school was limited, however it facilitated a change in her research interests to younger populations of children.[2] Moreover, she expressed concerns with the validity of cognitive testing in young children and emphasized the importance of environmental factors in the development of IQ in such ages.

Teachers College (1925-1930)
Teachers College, Columbia University in 2013

In May 1925, Helen Woolley received an offer to become a director for the Institute for Child Welfare Research at Teachers College, Columbia University.[2] Woolley became the only woman at the time to become a director of one of the most prestigious research centers.[2] In an attempt to smooth the transition between her position at the Merrill-Palmer School and her new position at Teachers College, Woolley travelled between Detroit and New York from January to June, 1926.[2] By April, 1926, Woolley started receiving criticism from friends and coworkers regarding her work ethics. The director of the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial, Lawrence K. Frank, had interviewed the Dean of Teachers College, James Russell, and reflected on it in a memorandum:

"I told Dean Russell that had been approached by several of Dr. Woolley’s friends with a request that I help her out of the difficulties she was facing and that as nearly as I could understand the matter, Dr.Woolley’s temperamental aversion to any disputes or self-assertion put her at considerable disadvantage at Teachers College."[4]

In late May, it was discovered that Woolley had developed an abdominal tumour for which she had to undergo an appendectomy and hysterectomy.[2] During her treatment, Teachers College was kindly supporting Woolley by continuing her salary and paying her medical bills.[5] Despite her health issues, Woolley officially moved to New York in September 1926, and subsequently developed two nursery schools within Teachers College for the purpose of studying early childhood education.[1] She hired about fifteen female graduates to work under her, who developed innovative work on early childhood education and collectively advocated for nursery schools.[1]

The death of her close friend, Bess Cleveland, and her divorce from Paul, were only two of many factors in Woolley’s life that caused emotional instability.[1][2] Woolley took a leave of absence for a year and traveled to various nursery schools in England, Brussels, Vienna, and Geneva in order to gain knowledge on early childhood education in European countries.[1][2] She resumed her duties in August 1928 and presented two papers at the International Congress of Psychology Conference in Fall 1929.[1]

Woolley was shocked when she was asked to resign in February 1930 by Dean William Russell, son of the previous Dean Russell.[1] Woolley’s accomplishments during her time at Teachers' College included becoming an internationally-known researcher and scholar,[1] having multiple publications, and being considered as one of America's top child psychologists by the age of 55.[2] Unfortunately, she felt that all of this went unrecognized when she was asked to resign, as Dean Russell cited difficulties in her teaching.[2] Woolley harboured resentment towards Dean Russell, and went on to write an 11-paged typescript called, "The Experience of Helen T. Woolley in being employed in Teachers College, Columbia University, and in being dismissed from Teachers College."[2] In May, Dean Russell replied to her claims by identifying multiple errors within her typescript which highlighted Woolley's impaired recollection.[2] Woolley spent the next decade attempting to find work in academia but found no success.[1]

Emotional and cognitive difficulties

Woolley's mental illness was a major factor that led to the end of her career and a lack of recognition on her accomplishments.[2] Woolley's mental breakdown could be dated back to 1927, when her husband, Paul Woolley, divorced her.[2] In addition to the divorce, several incidents happened around the same period which affected the basis of Woolley's life: the hysterectomy and appendectomy for the abdominal tumor,[2] a year of commuting between Merrill-Palmer and Teacher's College, the new job at Teacher's College, the death of her friend, Bess Cleveland, and the separation from her daughters.[1] Subsequently, Woolley took a year off work to recover from her breakdown. By February 1927, she was transferred to the Four Winds Sanitarium in Katonah, New York due to her severe depression and suicide attempt.[2] Woolley's doctor, Charles I. Lambert, described that Woolley's illness progressed as a normal depression, with some opposite symptoms such as being overactive, over self-assertive and dominant. Lambert did not think that Woolley should continue her job as a teacher because she was emotionally unstable and lack of self-control, had memory impairment, and liked to do things on her own way.[2] However, Woolley thought that she was fully recovered and resumed work in the fall of 1928.[1] Unexpectedly, Woolley was being asked to resign from Teacher's College by Dean William Russell in February 1930 because of her poor teaching and incompetent administration, although she denied having any problem with her duties. After her resignation, she wrote to her old friend, James Angell, and asked for his help in finding a new job. Angell, however, thought that Woolley was not suitable to work due to her serious condition of mental disturbance.[2]

Woolley started writing argumentative letters regarding Dean William Russell's treatment to her in Teacher's College in May 1930. She even went further to write a lengthy typescript to express her anger and dissatisfaction towards Russell. However, the statement contained a lot of errors on the dates and false claims regarding her resignation, reflecting her impaired recollection.[2] In January 1933, Adolf Meyer, a Johns Hopkins psychiatrist, reported that Woolley had an "obsession of vindication" in regard to her resignation in Teacher's College rather than having depression. According to Woolley's daughter, Eleanor Faxon Woolley, Woolley was increasingly getting more paranoid, and further accused William Russell and Edna White of persuading the others not to assist her. Woolley's obsession continued to grow with her mental illness and could not be resolved.[2]

Woolley could not find a job after being dismissed from Teacher's College, which brought her to the end of her career.[1] In Woolley's last years, she became dependent on her daughter, Eleanor.[1] On December 24, 1947, Woolley died of an aortic aneurysm at the age of 73 at Eleanor's home in Harvertown, Pennsylvania.[2]

Publications

During the course of her career, Woolley wrote and published three books and around fifty articles. These published works ranged in topic, and although the vast majority of her works were psychology related, she did publish some philosophy and neurology related articles as a graduate student at the University of Chicago.[2] A list of some of her more well-known published works, particularly those published early in her career, can be found below.

  • Woolley, Helen Thompson (1907). "Sensory affection and emotion". Psychological Review, 14 (5): 329–344. doi:10.1037/h0074333. ISSN 0033-295X.
    • A review of Carl Stumpf’s discussions on affective processes, who insists that sensory affections should be classified a specific class of sensations. Wooley discusses “(1) pain sensations and the pleasure sensations arising in the skin and vegetative organs; (2) the affective tone of higher senses, and (3) applications.” (Woolley, 1907)
  • Woolley, Helen Thompson (1914). "The psychology of sex". Psychological Bulletin, 11 (10): 353–379. doi:10.1037/h0070064. ISSN 0033-2909.
    • A literature review was conducted on 88 studies regarding the psychology of sex. Various aspects within the study of sex differences have been identified, including heredity, motor ability, memory, attention, and general intelligence, along with the impact of social influences.

References
  1. Morse, Jane Fowler (2002). "Ignored But Not Forgotten: The Work of Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley". NWSA Journal. 14 (2): 121–147. doi:10.2979/NWS.2002.14.2.121.
  2. Milar, Katherine S. (2004). Breaking the Silence: Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley (In T. C. Dalton & R. B. Evans ed.). New York, NY, US: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. pp. 301–328.
  3. Burns, S. T. (2009). "Legacy of the vocational bureau of Cincinnati: Research advances social justice". The Career Development Quarterly. 57 (3): 237–247. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2009.tb00109.x.
  4. Frank, L. K. (April 27, 1926). Memorandum of an interview with James E. Russell. Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Series III-5, Box 42, Folder 436. Sleepy Hollow, NY: Rockefeller Archive Center.CS1 maint: location (link)
  5. Russell, W. F. (January 12, 1928). Letter to Raymond B. Fosdick. Attorney for the Rockefeller Foundation. William F. Russell Papers, Box 76. New York, NY: Department of Special Collections, Milbank Memorial Library, Teachers College, Columbia University.CS1 maint: location (link)
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