Geniposide

Geniposide is a bioactive iridoid glycoside that is found in a wide variety of medicinal herbs, such as Gardenia jasminoides (fruits) .[3] Geniposide shows several pharmacological effects (in vitro and in vivo) including neuroprotective, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidepressant-like, cardioprotective, antioxidant, immune-regulatory, antithrombotic and antitumoral activity.[4] These pharmacology benefits arise through the modulating action of geniposide on several proteins and genes that are associated with inflammatory and oxidative stress processes.[5]

Geniposide
Names
IUPAC name
methyl (1S,4aS,7aS)-7-(hydroxymethyl)-1-[(2S,3R,4S,5S,6R)-3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]oxy-1,4a,5,7a-tetrahydrocyclopenta[c]pyran-4-carboxylate[1]
Other names
Jasminoidin;[2] methyl 1-(hexopyranosyloxy)-7-(hydroxymethyl)-1,4a,5,7a-tetrahydrocyclopenta[c]pyran-4-carboxylate
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.208.687
EC Number
  • 683-175-1
KEGG
MeSH geniposide
UNII
Properties
C17H24O10
Molar mass 388.369 g·mol−1
Melting point 245.23 °C (473.41 °F; 518.38 K)
Boiling point 641.4±55.0 °C at 760 mmHg
log P -1.854
Acidity (pKa) 12.80±0.70
Hazards
GHS pictograms
GHS Signal word Danger
H301
P264, P270, P301+310, P321, P330, P405, P501
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N (what is YN ?)
Infobox references

Physiological activity

Neuroprotective

A growing body of evidence shows that the neuroprotective benefit of geniposide probably arises from its agonist action on the glucagon-like peptide-1(GLP-1R) receptor. When this receptor is activated neurotrophic effects were induced in cells, such as neurite outgrowth, reducing amyloid plaques, inhibiting τ phosphorylation, preventing memory impairment and loss of synapses, reducing oxidative stress and the chronic inflammatory response.,[6][7] These effects could be promising in the treatment of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

Antidepressant-Like

Studies on depressive rats (induced by chronic unpredictable mild stress) have shown that the antidepressant effect of geniposide is similar to fluoxetine. This effect could be mediated by geniposide's effects on the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, whose dysfunction has been associated with the pathogenesis of depression. In a depressive state the serum levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol are increased, as well as hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone gene expression. The dysfunction of the HPA axis plays an important rule in the serotonergic system. When HPA axis shows high levels of activity, this leads to an hyper secretion of cortisol and corticotropin-releasing hormone, in the opposite case the serotonergic system suffers a downregulation and decreases its activity. Low serotonergic system activity results in hyporesponsivity of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) in the hippocampus.,[8][9] Geniposide was able to reverse the high levels of cortisol and hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone gene expression, which lead to an increase of 5-HT in the hippocampus and 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in striatum.[8]

Antioxidant

Geniposide shows a reasonable capacity of induction of endogenous antioxidative proteins, which offer protection against cell injury by oxidative stress. A study with hippocampal neurons revealed that geniposide could enhance cytoprotection, though the activation of the enzyme Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) and the induction of the nuclear translocation of erythroid 2–related factor 2 (NFE2L2).[10] The PI3K/Nrf2 pathway signaling triggers several responses, such as the expression of antioxidative enzymes heme oxygenase (HO-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and NAD(P)H dehydrogenase quinone 1 (NQO1), reducing accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).[11]

Anti-inflammatory

Several studies have shown geniposide's potential to treat inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis, due to its effect in the production on cytokine and pro-inflammatory mediators. In rats with arthritis, oral administration of geniposide (30, 60, and 120 mg/kg) shows a decrease in T helper 17 cell cytokines such as interleukin-2 (IL-2) and an increase in regulatory T-cell cytokines in mesenteric lymph node lymphocytes, like interleukin-4 (IL-4) and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-beta 1).[3][12] Another study revealed that geniposide's effect was probably enhanced by immunoregulation in immunologic tissues, such as gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). When regulating, the mesenteric lymph node triggers the amelioration of the JNK-mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38MAPKs) signaling cascades. The same pathway was observed in peripheral blood lymphocytes.[13]

Antidiabetic activity

Geniposide has been reported as having a hypoglycemic effect, which could be mediated by hepatic glucose-metabolizing enzymes, such as hepatic glycogen phosphorylase (GP) and glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase).[14] GP and G6Pase are induced by chronic hyperglycemia. High levels of blood sugar increased their expression and activity, which lead to an increase in hepatic glucose production and unbalance the glucose metabolism.[15] A study with the high-fat diet (HFD) - streptozotocin (STZ) diabetic mouse model using geniposides doses of 200 and 400 (mg/kg) has shown a significant decrease in body weight, blood glucose, insulin and triglycerides (TG) levels. An increase in the activity of GP and G6Pas was also observed in this diabetic mouse model, but when the same geniposide doses were administered, activity decreased significantly.[14]

Pharmacokinetics

Absortion

Studies show that oral (50 mg/kg), intravenous (50 mg/kg) and intramuscular (8 mg/kg) administration of Geniposide follow a one-compartment model and nasal administration (8 mg/kg) a two-compartment model. The absolute bioavailability is higher in intramuscular administration (F = 72,69%) followed by nasal administration (F = 49,54%).[16]

Distribution

In rats, after an oral administration of geniposide (200 mg/kg) the highest tissue concentration was observed in the kidney (1.12 ± 0.37 μg/ml) with a tmax of 2h. The tissue distribution, measured in terms of AUC0→4h values, follows kidney > spleen> liver > heart > lung> brain.[17]

Metabolism

Using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography 17 metabolites were identified in plasma and 31 in urine. In vivo, geniposide can follow two distinct metabolic pathways. The main metabolic pathway involves the hydrolysis of the hydroxyl groups followed by a series of reactions, such as taurine, sulfate and glucuronide conjugation.[4][18]

Excretion

In humans, the majority of excretion of Geniposide is urinary.[4]

Toxicity

Hepatoxicity is the major safety issue of geniposide. Several studies in rats have shown an increase in serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase activities (Oral administration of 320 mg/kg body weight).[19] A 2012 study linked geniposide hepatoxicity with oxidative stress, due to a decreased of total superoxide dismutase activity and an increase of malondialdehyde concentration in rats’ livers. These results were associated only with a high dose of Geniposide (greater than 574 mg/kg).[20] A repeated dosing study has shown that geniposide is safe at a dosage of 24.3 mg/kg or less.[20]

Acute nephrotoxicity was observed after an oral administration of geniposide (dose of 1.2 g/kg) on jaundice rats. Increases in serum levels of blood urea nitrogen and creatinine were detected.[21]

References
  1. CID 107848 from PubChem
  2. CID 387043706 from PubChem
  3. Zhou YX, Zhang RQ, Rahman K, Cao ZX, Zhang H, Peng C (April 2019). "Diverse Pharmacological Activities and Potential Medicinal Benefits of Geniposide". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2019: 4925682. doi:10.1155/2019/4925682. PMC 6500620. PMID 31118959.
  4. Shan M, Yu S, Yan H, Guo S, Xiao W, Wang Z, et al. (October 2017). "A Review on the Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology of Geniposide, a Natural Product". Molecules. 22 (10): 1689. doi:10.3390/molecules22101689. PMC 6151614. PMID 28994736.
  5. Li N, Li L, Wu H, Zhou H (April 2019). "Antioxidative Property and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Geniposide-Mediated Therapeutic Effects in Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease". Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2019: 7480512. doi:10.1155/2019/7480512. PMC 6476013. PMID 31089416.
  6. Liu W, Li G, Hölscher C, Li L (2015). "Neuroprotective effects of geniposide on Alzheimer's disease pathology". Reviews in the Neurosciences. 26 (4): 371–83. doi:10.1515/revneuro-2015-0005. PMID 25879319. S2CID 32753663.
  7. Gao C, Liu Y, Jiang Y, Ding J, et al. (2014). "Geniposide ameliorates learning memory deficits, reduces τ phosphorylation and decreases apoptosis via GSK3 β pathway in streptozotocin-induced Alzheimer rat model". Brain Pathol. 24 (3): 261–269. doi:10.1111/bpa.12116. PMID 24329968. S2CID 38096561.
  8. Cai L, Li R, Tang WJ, Meng G, Hu XY, Wu TN (August 2015). "Antidepressant-like effect of geniposide on chronic unpredictable mild stress-induced depressive rats by regulating the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 25 (8): 1332–41. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.04.009. PMID 25914157. S2CID 45890530.
  9. Holsboer F, Barden N (April 1996). "Antidepressants and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical regulation". Endocrine Reviews. 17 (2): 187–205. doi:10.1210/edrv-17-2-187. PMID 8706631.
  10. Yin F, Liu J, Zheng X, Guo L, Xiao H (2010). "Geniposide induces the expression of heme oxygenase-1 via PI3K/Nrf2-signaling to enhance the antioxidant capacity in primary hippocampal neurons". Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 33 (11): 1841–6. doi:10.1248/bpb.33.1841. PMID 21048309.
  11. He T, Shen H, Zhu J, Zhu Y, He Y, Li Z, Lu H (August 2019). "Geniposide attenuates cadmium‑induced oxidative stress injury via Nrf2 signaling in osteoblasts". Molecular Medicine Reports. 20 (2): 1499–1508. doi:10.3892/mmr.2019.10396. PMC 6625402. PMID 31257486.
  12. Wang R, Wu H, Chen J, Li SP, Dai L, Zhang ZR, Wang WY (April 2017). "Antiinflammation Effects and Mechanisms Study of Geniposide on Rats with Collagen-Induced Arthritis". Phytotherapy Research. 31 (4): 631–637. doi:10.1002/ptr.5775. PMID 28127805. S2CID 41542274.
  13. Dai MM, Wu H, Li H, Chen J, Chen JY, Hu SL, et al. (2014). "Effects and mechanisms of geniposide on rats with adjuvant arthritis". Immunopharmacol. 20 (1): 46–53. doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2014.02.021. PMID 24583144.
  14. Wu SY, Wang GF, Liu ZQ, Rao JJ, Lü L, Xu W, et al. (February 2009). "Effect of geniposide, a hypoglycemic glucoside, on hepatic regulating enzymes in diabetic mice induced by a high-fat diet and streptozotocin". Acta Pharmacologica Sinica. 30 (2): 202–8. doi:10.1038/aps.2008.17. PMC 4002460. PMID 19122671.
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  17. Wang F, Cao J, Hao J, et al. (Nov 2013). "Pharmacokinetics, bioavailability and tissue distribution of geniposide following intravenous and peroral administration to rats". Biopharm. Drug Dispos. 35 (2): 97–103. doi:10.1002/bdd.1869. PMID 24122743. S2CID 44774570.
  18. Li Y, Cai W, Cai Q, Che Y, Zhao B, Zhang J (2015). "Comprehensive characterization of the in vitro and in vivo metabolites of geniposide in rats using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap-Orbitrap mass spectrometer". Xenobiotica; the Fate of Foreign Compounds in Biological Systems. 46 (4): 357–68. doi:10.3109/00498254.2015.1079746. PMID 26330181. S2CID 32443681.
  19. Yamano T, Tsujimoto Y, Noda T, Shimizu M, Ohmori M, Morita S, Yamada A (July 1990). "Hepatotoxicity of geniposide in rats". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 28 (7): 515–9. doi:10.1016/0278-6915(90)90122-4. PMID 2210524.
  20. Ding Y, Zhang T, Tao JS, Zhang LY, Shi JR, Ji G (Mar 2012). "Potential hepatotoxicity of geniposide, the major iridoid glycoside in dried ripe fruits of Gardenia jasminoides (Zhi-zi)". Natural Product Research. 27 (10): 929–33. doi:10.1080/14786419.2012.673604. PMID 22456001. S2CID 2310392.
  21. Cheng SH, Zhang YY, Li HF, Wei JP, et al. (2015). "Acute hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity study of geniposide on jaundice rats". Chin. J. Exp. Tradit. Med. Formuae. 21: 174–178.
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