Crotalaria

Crotalaria is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family Fabaceae (subfamily Faboideae) commonly known as rattlepods.[3] The genus includes about 500 species of herbaceous plants and shrubs. Africa is the continent with the majority of Crotalaria species (approximately 400 species), which are mainly found in damp grassland, especially in floodplains, depressions and along edges of swamps and rivers, but also in deciduous bush land, roadsides and fields. Some species of Crotalaria are grown as ornamentals. The common name rattlepod or rattlebox is derived from the fact that the seeds become loose in the pod as they mature, and rattle when the pod is shaken. The name derives from the Ancient Greek κρόταλον, meaning "castanet", and is the same root as the name for the rattlesnakes (Crotalus).

Crotalaria
Crotalaria retusa
Rattlepod
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Rosids
Order:	Fabales
Family:	Fabaceae
Subfamily:	Faboideae
Tribe:	Crotalarieae[1][2]
Genus:	Crotalaria L.
Species
See text.
Synonyms
Goniogyna DC. 1825 Heylandia DC. 1825 Priotropis Wight & Arn. 1834 Quirosia Blanco

Crotalaria grahamiana, Thekkady, Kerala

Crotalaria species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Endoclita sericeus, Etiella zinckenella and Utetheisa ornatrix. The toxic alkaloids produced by some members of this genus are known to be incorporated by Utetheisia larvae and used to secure their defense from predators.[4]

Current and potential uses

Food and health

Several species of Crotalaria are cultivated as crops to be consumed by human populations throughout the world. To ensure the survival and optimal cultivation of these plants, they are often selected for resistance to diseases, yield, and nutritional quality.[5]

The wild and domesticated landraces of Crotalaria tetragona, colloquially known as “Tum-thang,” are grown and eaten by the tribal communities of the Mizoram state of North-east India. The flowers and pods of Crotalaria tetragona are eaten as vegetables, the flowers and buds are used as garnishing, and the seeds are eaten as pulse.[6] In the Lake Victoria basin of East Africa, the wild and cultivated lines of Crotalaria brevidens, also known as “mitoo,” are harvested and eaten as a leafy vegetable in many popular cuisines. Its wide consumption is mainly due to its nutritional value as a rich source of β-carotene, which is a precursor of vitamin A.[7] Crotalaria longirostrata, also known as longbeak rattlebox or chipilín, is found in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Oaxaca and is a popular addition to many local dishes. The edible portions of the plant are the leaves and shoots, which are cooked and served as a leafy green vegetable or desiccated and used as an herb. The foliage contains high amounts of calcium, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid, while the seeds and roots are considerably toxic.[8] Crotalaria longirostrata is considered a noxious weed in the United States since it is avoided as a source of consumption by many animals and since its seeds shatter and spread over a wide range.

Australian species of the genus Crotalaria have the capacity to be cultivated into potential grain crops that are adapted to dry environments, nutrient poor soils, and low-input agricultural systems. Australian Crotalaria species also show many suitable traits of harvestability, including an upright growth habit, a low tendency to dehisce and shatter, the bearing of its fruits and flowers at the ends of branches, and large to moderate seeds.[9]

Other uses

Several species of Crotalaria are currently being cultivated for suitable traits that are not directly related to human consumption. Crotalaria juncea, also known as sunn hemp, is currently grown throughout the tropics and subtropics[10] as a source of green manure, lightened fiber, and fodder. Crotalaria juncea is also being considered as a potential source of cellulosic ethanol for biofuel.[11]

Properties

Sensitivity to water supply levels

To analyze the differences in crop yield of Crotalaria in different regions, samples of Crotalaria brevidens and Crotalaria ochroleuca were taken from each setting and analyzed for crop yield under different water supply conditions. The results of the study show that Crotalaria plant height was extremely sensitive to water supply, and significantly led to a decrease in the shoot heights and leaf sizes in these two species, which ultimately meant lower crop yield. As a result, it can be said that Crotalaria was proven to grow better in regions with more adequate water supplies (ex.- they are predicted to grow better in swamplands than in deciduous bush land).[12]

Toxicity

The primary source of toxicity for many species of Crotalaria is the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which are poisonous to birds and large mammals. The two kinds of pyrrolizidine alkaloids that are found in Crotalaria plants are monocrotaline and spectabiline. Monocrotaline is most toxic to the pulmonary vasculature and is used in animal studies to induce pulmonary arterial hypertension for human modeling. Both alkaloids show clinical hepatotoxicity and carcinogenicity. They can be found in the leguminous seeds, foliage, stems, or roots of Crotalaria plants. Species with higher concentrations of pyrrolizidine alkaloids yield greater toxic effects compared to those with lower concentrations. In addition, species that contain only monocrotaline are more poisonous than species that contain only spectabiline at equal concentrations within the seeds, leaves, stems, or roots. There are no confirmed species to this date that contain both spectabiline and monocrotaline; a Crotalaria plant can only have either one or the other. Thus, plants that are less toxic and therefore more appropriate for human consumption carry only low concentrations of spectabiline. According to one study, species that display the greatest toxicity include Crotalaria spectabilis Roth, C. retusa L., C. alata Leveille, and C. quinquefolia L. Species that are least toxic include Crotalaria australis Bak. Ex Verdoorn, C. maxillaris Klotzsch, C. sphaerocarpa, C. juncea L, and C. brevidens Benth., among many others.[13]

Danaiine butterflies on Crotalaria (Kerala, India)

The toxic alkaloids are attractive to butterflies in the subfamily Danaiinae and large aggregations of butterflies occur during the flowering of Crotalaria species in Asia. These butterflies also obtain alkaloids from sap emerging from withering stems and terminal branches.[14][15]

Among pyrrolizidine alkaloid-containging plants, Crotalaria species cause the greatest range of tissue damage to most domesticated species, causing lung lesions in cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and pigs, and liver damage in most livestock.[3] Some species produce severe kidney lesions[3]

In March 2019, horses in the Federal District of Brazil were fed oats contaminated with Crotalaria seeds, from an earlier seeding intended to increase nitrogen levels in the soil, and at least 13 of them died of liver failure.[16]

Notable species

• Crotalaria spectabilis was introduced to the US from India for green manure. As a legume that supports nitrogen fixing bacteria, it is considered a "soil builder." However, it is also poisonous to cattle (as are many legumes), and has spread rapidly throughout the Southeastern United States where it is now considered an invasive species. The alkaloid monocrotaline, a pyrrolizidine alkaloid, the main toxic principle of Crotalaria spectabilis, is used to induce experimental pulmonary hypertension in laboratory animals.[17][18] Larvae of the Ornate moth feed on the plant and re-purpose the poisonous compound as a defense, excreting it when they are threatened by potential predation.
• Crotalaria pallida pollen may cause an allergic reaction in humans, including swelling of the eyes and face, a rash on the neck and shoulders, and itching. Symptoms may take up to a week to clear.
• Crotalaria longirostrata and Crotalaria pumila are tropical legumes domesticated since pre-Columbian times. They cover a wide range of uses such as: food and refreshing drink for humans, cover crop or green manure, improvement of fallows, paper elaboration, medicinal plant and honey production (melliferous species). Due to their high protein contents, Crotalaria longirostrata and Crotalaria pumila were further studied to observe potential improvements in the diets of those who consume it. In an experiment, this species of plant was collected in 5 communities of the state of Veracruz. In comparing the relative protein content of each plant, it was found that the cultivated plants with the largest leaves were the most protein-rich, while the plants with the smallest leaves had the least amount of protein. This has important agricultural implications because these plants can be selected specifically for larger leaves in order to yield maximal protein content.[19] Both of these plants are also considered to be valuable genetic resources, and studies suggest that they co-evolved within certain geographic regions. To affirm this, a cytological study between the two species was conducted, and it was found that their chromosomes are very similar in shape and size. The highly symmetrical nature of these two karyotypes suggests a close phylogenetic relationship between the two.[20]
• Crotalaria brevidens and Crotalaria ochroleuca are leafy vegetable species found to be cultivated in western Kenya. Several tribes known to reside in the country, including the Luhyas, Luos and Kisiis tribes, have been reported to have an extraordinarily high number of these species in comparison to other plant species in their communities. Over time, the Luhyas, Luos and Kisiis have selected both of these species of plants to have high yields. Alongside, this, Crotalaria brevidens and Crotalaria ochroleuca can be used as cover crops. Furthermore, they have also been selected by these Kenyan tribes to have high tolerance to disease and poor soil. Both of these serve as indications that the food production systems of each tribe evolved with the emphasis of vegetable cooking.[21]

List of species

Crotalaria comprises the following species:[22][23]

• Crotalaria abbreviata Baker f.
• Crotalaria abscondita Baker
• Crotalaria acicularis Benth.
• Crotalaria aculeata De Wild.
  • subsp. aculeata De Wild.
  • subsp. claessensii (De Wild.) Polhill
• Crotalaria adamii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria adamsonii Baker f.
• Crotalaria adenocarpoides Taub.
• Crotalaria adolfi Harms
• Crotalaria aegyptiaca Benth.
• Crotalaria afrocentralis Polhill
• Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf.
• Crotalaria alata D. Don
• Crotalaria albicaulis Franch.
• Crotalaria albida Roth
• Crotalaria alemanniana Torre
• Crotalaria alexandri Baker f.
• Crotalaria allophylla Thulin
• Crotalaria alticola Polhill
• Crotalaria amoena Baker
• Crotalaria andringitrensis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria andromedifolia R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria androyensis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria angulata Mill.
• Crotalaria angulicaulis Harms
• Crotalaria angustifolia (Gagnep.) Niyomdham
• Crotalaria anisophylla (Hiern) Baker
• Crotalaria ankaizinensis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria ankaratrana R. Vig.
• Crotalaria annamensis Phon
• Crotalaria annua Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria anomala R. Vig.
• Crotalaria anthyllopsis Baker
• Crotalaria antunesii Baker f.
• Crotalaria arcuata Polhill
• Crotalaria arenaria Benth.
• Crotalaria argenteotomentosa R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria argyraea Baker
• Crotalaria argyrolobioides Baker
• Crotalaria aridicola Domin
• Crotalaria arushae Polhill
• Crotalaria assamica Benth.
• Crotalaria assurgens Polhill
• Crotalaria atrorubens Benth.
• Crotalaria aurea Baker f.
• Crotalaria avonensis Delaney & Wunderlin
• Crotalaria awasensis Thulin
• Crotalaria axillaris Aiton
• Crotalaria axilliflora Baker f.
• Crotalaria axillifloroides R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria bahiaensis Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria bakeriana Rossberg
• Crotalaria balansae Micheli
• Crotalaria balbi Chiov.
• Crotalaria ballyi Polhill
• Crotalaria bamendae Hepper
• Crotalaria barbata Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria barkae Schweinf.
• Crotalaria barnabassii Baker f.
• Crotalaria barretoensis Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria basipeta R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria baumii Harms
• Crotalaria becquetii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria beddomeana Thoth. & A.A. Ansari
• Crotalaria bellii Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria bemba R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria benadirensis Chiov.
• Crotalaria benguellensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria benthamiana E. Pritz.
• Crotalaria bequaertii Baker f.
• Crotalaria bernieri Baill.
• Crotalaria berteroana DC.
• Crotalaria bialata Schrank
• Crotalaria bifaria L. f.
• Crotalaria biflora L.
• Crotalaria blanda Polhill
• Crotalaria boehmii Taub.
• Crotalaria bogdaniana Polhill
• Crotalaria boliviensis Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria bondii Torre
• Crotalaria bongensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria boranica Baker f.
• Crotalaria bosseri M. Peltier
• Crotalaria boudetii Polhill
• Crotalaria boutiqueana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria brachycarpa (Benth.) Verd.
• Crotalaria brachycarpa Benth.
• Crotalaria bracteata DC.
• Crotalaria brasiliensis Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria bredoi R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria brevicornuta Polhill
• Crotalaria brevidens Benth.
  • var. brevidens Benth.
  • var. intermedia (Kotschy) Polhill
  • var. parviflora (Baker f.) Polhill
• Crotalaria breviflora DC.
  • var. breviflora DC.
  • var. pohliana (Benth.) Windler & S. G. Skinner
• Crotalaria brevipedunculata Windler
• Crotalaria brevis Domin
• Crotalaria bupleurifolia Cham. & Schltdl.
• Crotalaria burhia Benth.
• Crotalaria burkeana Benth.
• Crotalaria burttii Baker f.
• Crotalaria cabui R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria cajanifolia Kunth
• Crotalaria callensii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria calliantha Polhill
• Crotalaria calva R. Vig.
• Crotalaria calycina Schrank
• Crotalaria cambodiensis Phon
• Crotalaria campestris Polhill
• Crotalaria candicans Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria capensis Jacq.
• Crotalaria capillipes Polhill
• Crotalaria capuronii M. Peltier
• Crotalaria carrissoana Torre
• Crotalaria carsonii Baker f.
• Crotalaria carsonioides R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria caudata Baker
• Crotalaria cephalotes A. Rich.
• Crotalaria chamaepeuce Polhill
• Crotalaria chinensis L.
• Crotalaria chirindae Baker f.
• Crotalaria chondrocarpa Polhill
• Crotalaria chrysochlora Harms
• Crotalaria chrysotricha Polhill
• Crotalaria cistoides Baker
• Crotalaria clarkei Gamble
• Crotalaria claussenii Benth.
• Crotalaria clavata Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria cleomifolia Baker
• Crotalaria cobalticola P.A. Duvign. & Plancke
• Crotalaria collettii Prain
• Crotalaria collina Polhill
• Crotalaria colorata Schinz
• Crotalaria comanestiana Volkens & Schweinf.
• Crotalaria comosa Baker
• Crotalaria concinna Polhill
• Crotalaria confertiflora Polhill
• Crotalaria confusa Hepper
• Crotalaria congesta Polhill
• Crotalaria congoensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria cordata Baker
• Crotalaria cornetii Taub. & Dewevre
• Crotalaria cornu-ammonis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria corymbosa Torre
• Crotalaria coursii M. Peltier
• Crotalaria craspedocarpa R. Vig.
• Crotalaria crebra Polhill
• Crotalaria criniramea Polhill
• Crotalaria crispata Benth.
• Crotalaria cunninghamii R. Br.
• Crotalaria cuspidata Taub.
• Crotalaria cyanea Baker
• Crotalaria cyanoxantha R. Vig.
• Crotalaria cylindrica A. Rich.
• Crotalaria cylindrocarpa DC.
• Crotalaria cylindrostachys Baker
• Crotalaria cytisoides DC.
• Crotalaria dalensis Torre
• Crotalaria damarensis Engl.
• Crotalaria dasyclada Polhill
• Crotalaria debilis Polhill
• Crotalaria decaryana R. Vig.
• Crotalaria decora Polhill
• Crotalaria dedzana Polhill
• Crotalaria deflersii Schweinf.
• Crotalaria deightonii Hepper
• Crotalaria densicephala Baker
• Crotalaria depressa Polhill
• Crotalaria desaegeri R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria descampsii Micheli
• Crotalaria deserticola Baker f.
• Crotalaria dewildemaniana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria digitata Hook.
• Crotalaria dilatata Polhill
• Crotalaria diminuta Polhill
• Crotalaria dinteri Schinz
• Crotalaria diosmifolia Benth.
• Crotalaria dissitiflora Benth.
• Crotalaria distans Benth.
  • subsp. distans Benth.
  • subsp. macaulayae (Baker f.) Polhill
  • subsp. macrotropis (Baker f.) Polhill
• Crotalaria distantiflora Baker f.
• Crotalaria divaricata Benth.
• Crotalaria doidgeae Verd.
• Crotalaria dolichantha Polhill
• Crotalaria dolichonyx Baker f. & Martin
• Crotalaria doniana Baker
• Crotalaria dubia Graham
• Crotalaria duboisii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria dumosa Franch.
• Crotalaria dura J.M. Wood & M.S. Evans
• Crotalaria durandiana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria duvigneaudii Timp.
• Crotalaria ebenoides (Guill. & Perr.) Walp.
• Crotalaria edmundi-bakeri R. Vig.
• Crotalaria egregia Polhill
• Crotalaria ekmanii Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria elisabethae Baker f.
• Crotalaria emarginata Benth.
• Crotalaria emarginella Vatke
• Crotalaria emirnensis Benth.
• Crotalaria ephemera Polhill
• Crotalaria epunctata Dalzell
• Crotalaria erecta Pilg.
• Crotalaria eremaea F. Muell.
  • subsp. eremaea F. Muell.
  • subsp. strehlowii (E. Pritz.) A.T.Lee
• Crotalaria eremicola Baker f.
• Crotalaria ericoides Torre
• Crotalaria erythrophleba Baker
• Crotalaria eurycalyx Polhill
• Crotalaria evolvuloides Benth.
• Crotalaria exaltata Polhill
• Crotalaria excisa (Thunb.) Baker f.
• Crotalaria exelliana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria exilipes Polhill
• Crotalaria exilis Polhill
• Crotalaria eximia Polhill
• Crotalaria fallax Chiov.
• Crotalaria fascicularis Polhill
• Crotalaria fenarolii Torre
• Crotalaria ferruginea Benth.
• Crotalaria fiherenensis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria filicaulis Baker
• Crotalaria filifolia Rose
• Crotalaria filiformis Benth.
• Crotalaria filipes Benth.
• Crotalaria flavicarinata Baker f.
• Crotalaria flavicoma Benth.
• Crotalaria florida Baker
• Crotalaria formosa Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria friesii Verd.
• Crotalaria fysonii Dunn
• Crotalaria gamwelliae Baker f.
• Crotalaria gazensis Baker f.
  • subsp. gazensis Baker f.
  • subsp. herbacea Polhill
• Crotalaria gengmaensis Z. Wei & C.Y. Yang
• Crotalaria germainii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria gillettii Polhill
• Crotalaria glabripedicellata R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria glauca Willd.
• Crotalaria glaucifolia Baker
• Crotalaria glaucoides Baker f.
• Crotalaria globifera E. Mey.
• Crotalaria globosa Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria gloriae Bernal
• Crotalaria gnidioides R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria goetzei Harms
• Crotalaria goiasensis Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria goodiiformis Vatke
• Crotalaria goreensis Guill. & Perr.
• Crotalaria grahamiana Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria graminicola Baker f.
• Crotalaria grandibracteata Taub.
• Crotalaria grandiflora Benth.
• Crotalaria grandistipulata Harms
• Crotalaria grata Polhill
• Crotalaria greenwayi Baker f.
• Crotalaria grevei Drake
• Crotalaria griquensis Bolus
• Crotalaria griseofusca Baker f.
• Crotalaria hainanensis C.C. Huang
• Crotalaria harleyi Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria hatschbachii Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria haumaniana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria hebecarpa (DC.) Rudd
• Crotalaria heidmannii Schinz
• Crotalaria hemsleyi Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria heqingensis C.Y. Yang
• Crotalaria herpetoclada Rossberg
• Crotalaria heterotricha Polhill
• Crotalaria heyneana Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria hilariana Benth.
• Crotalaria hirsuta Willd.
• Crotalaria hirta Willd.
• Crotalaria hoffmannii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria holoptera Baker
• Crotalaria holosericea Nees & Mart.
• Crotalaria horrida Polhill
• Crotalaria huillensis Taub.
• Crotalaria humbertiana M. Peltier
• Crotalaria humbertii R. Vig.
• Crotalaria humifusa Benth.
• Crotalaria humilis Eckl. & Zeyh.
• Crotalaria hyssopifolia Klotzsch
• Crotalaria ibityensis R. Vig. & Humbert
• Crotalaria impressa Walp.
• Crotalaria incana L.
  • subsp. incana L.
    • var. australis Griseb.
    • var. grandiflora Windler et al.
    • var. incana L.
    • var. nicaraguensis H. Senn
  • subsp. purpurascens (Lam.) Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria incompta N.E. Br.
• Crotalaria incrassifolia Polhill
• Crotalaria inflexa Polhill
• Crotalaria inopinata (Harms) Polhill
• Crotalaria insignis Polhill
• Crotalaria intonsa Polhill
• Crotalaria intricata Thulin
• Crotalaria involutifolia Polhill
• Crotalaria inyangensis Polhill
• Crotalaria ionoptera Polhill
• Crotalaria iringana Harms
• Crotalaria irwinii Windler & S.G. Skinner
• Crotalaria isaloensis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria ivantalensis Baker
• Crotalaria jacksonii Baker f.
• Crotalaria jerokoensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria jianfengensis C.Y. Yang
• Crotalaria jijigensis Thulin
• Crotalaria johannis Torre
• Crotalaria johnstonii Baker
• Crotalaria jubae Polhill
• Crotalaria juncea L.
• Crotalaria jurioniana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria kambanguensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria kambolensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria kanaii H. Ohashi
• Crotalaria kandoensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria kapiriensis De Wild.
• Crotalaria karagwensis Taub.
• Crotalaria kassneri Baker f.
• Crotalaria kelaensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria keniensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria kerkvoordei R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria khasiana Thoth. & A.A. Ansari
• Crotalaria kibaraensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria kipandensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria kipilaensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria kirkii Baker
• Crotalaria kostermansii Niyomdham
• Crotalaria kuiririensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria kundelunguensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria kurtii Schinz
• Crotalaria kurzii Kurz
• Crotalaria kwengeensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria laburnifolia L.
  • subsp. australis (Baker f.) Polhill
  • subsp. laburnifolia L.
• Crotalaria laburnoides Klotzsch
• Crotalaria lachnocarpoides Engl.
• Crotalaria lachnophora A. Rich.
• Crotalaria lachnosema Stapf
• Crotalaria laevigata Lam.
• Crotalaria lanata Bedd.[24]
• Crotalaria lanceolata E. Mey.
  • subsp. lanceolata E. Mey.
  • subsp. prognatha Polhill
• Crotalaria lancifoliolata Torre
• Crotalaria larsenii Niyomdham
• Crotalaria lasiocarpa Polhill
• Crotalaria lathyroides Guill. & Perr.
• Crotalaria lawalreeana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria laxiflora Baker
• Crotalaria leandriana M. Peltier
• Crotalaria lebeckioides Bond
• Crotalaria lebrunii Baker f.
• Crotalaria ledermannii Baker f.
• Crotalaria leonardiana Timp.
• Crotalaria lepidissima Baker f.
• Crotalaria leprieurii Guill. & Perr.
• Crotalaria leptocarpa Balf. f.
• Crotalaria leptoclada Harms
• Crotalaria leptostachya Benth.
• Crotalaria leubnitziana Schinz
• Crotalaria leucoclada Baker
• Crotalaria limosa Polhill
• Crotalaria linearifoliolata Chiov.
• Crotalaria linifolia L. f.
• Crotalaria lisowskii Polhill
• Crotalaria loandae Baker f.
• Crotalaria longiclavata Polhill
• Crotalaria longidens Verd.
• Crotalaria longipes Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria longirostrata Hook. & Arn.
• Crotalaria longithyrsa Baker f.
  • var. latifolia R. Wilczek
  • var. longithyrsa Baker f.
• Crotalaria lotifolia L.
• Crotalaria lotiformis Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria lotoides Benth.
• Crotalaria lukafuensis De Wild.
• Crotalaria lukomae Baker f.
• Crotalaria lukwangulensis Harms
• Crotalaria lunata Polhill[25]
• Crotalaria lundensis Torre
• Crotalaria lunulata Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria luondeensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria lusamboensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria lusingaensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria lutescens Dalzell
• Crotalaria luxenii Baker f.
• Crotalaria macrantha Polhill
• Crotalaria macrocalyx Benth.
• Crotalaria macrocarpa E. Mey.
• Crotalaria madurensis Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria mahafalensis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria mairei H. Lev.
• Crotalaria malaissei Polhill
• Crotalaria malindiensis Polhill
• Crotalaria mandrarensis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria manganifera Polhill
• Crotalaria manongarivensis R. Vig.
• Crotalaria martiana Benth.
• Crotalaria massaiensis Taub.
• Crotalaria mauensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria maxillaria Klotzsch
• Crotalaria maypurensis Kunth
• Crotalaria medicaginea Lam.
  • var. luxurians (Benth.) Baker
  • var. medicaginea Lam.
  • var. neglecta (Wight & Arn.) Baker
• Crotalaria meeboldii Dunn
• Crotalaria megapotamica Burkart
• Crotalaria melanocalyx Polhill
• Crotalaria melanocarpa Benth.
• Crotalaria membranacea W. Fitzg.
• Crotalaria mendesii Torre
• Crotalaria mendoncae Torre
• Crotalaria mentiens Polhill
• Crotalaria mesopontica Taub.
• Crotalaria mexicana Windler
• Crotalaria meyeriana Steud.
• Crotalaria micans Link
• Crotalaria micheliana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria microcarpa Benth.
• Crotalaria microphylla M. Vahl
• Crotalaria microthamnus R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria mildbraedii Baker f.
• Crotalaria milneana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria minutissima Baker f.
• Crotalaria miranda Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria misella Polhill
• Crotalaria mitchellii Benth.
• Crotalaria mocubensis Polhill
• Crotalaria modesta Polhill
• Crotalaria mohlenbrockii Windler & S. G. Skinner[26]
• Crotalaria mollicula Kunth
• Crotalaria mollii Polhill
• Crotalaria montana Roth[27]
• Crotalaria monteiroi Baker f.
  • var. galpinii Burtt Davy ex I. Verd.
  • var. monteiroi Baker f.
• Crotalaria mortonii Hepper
• Crotalaria morumbensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria muenzneri Baker f.
• Crotalaria multiflora (Arn.) Benth.
• Crotalaria mysorensis Roth
• Crotalaria naikiana Zate
• Crotalaria nana Burm. f.
• Crotalaria naragutensis Hutch.
• Crotalaria natalensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria natalitia Meissner
  • subsp. natalitia Meissner
  • subsp. rutshuruensis De Wild.
• Crotalaria nayaritensis Windler
• Crotalaria nematophylla Baker f.
• Crotalaria neriifolia Benth.
• Crotalaria newtoniana Torre
• Crotalaria nigricans Baker
• Crotalaria nitens Kunth
• Crotalaria nitidula Schrank
• Crotalaria notonii Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria novae-hollandiae DC.
  • subsp. crassipes (Hook.) A. E. Holland
  • subsp. lasiophylla (Benth.) A.T.Lee
  • subsp. novae-hollandiae DC.
• Crotalaria nuda Polhill
• Crotalaria nudiflora Polhill
• Crotalaria nyikensis Baker
• Crotalaria obscura DC.
• Crotalaria obtecta Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria occidentalis Hepper
• Crotalaria occulta Benth.
• Crotalaria ochroleuca G. Don
• Crotalaria oligosperma Polhill
• Crotalaria oligostachya Baker
• Crotalaria onobrychis A. Rich.
• Crotalaria ononoides Benth.
• Crotalaria onusta Polhill
• Crotalaria oocarpa Baker
  • subsp. microcarpa Milne-Redh.
  • subsp. oocarpa Baker
• Crotalaria orientalis Burtt Davy ex I. Verd.
  • subsp. allenii (I. Verd.) Polhill & A. Schreib.
  • subsp. orientalis Verd.
• Crotalaria orixensis Willd.
• Crotalaria orthoclada Baker
• Crotalaria otoptera Benth.
• Crotalaria ovata Polhill
• Crotalaria oxyphylla Harms
• Crotalaria oxyphylloides R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria pallida Aiton
  • var. obovata (G. Don) Polhill
  • var. pallida Aiton
• Crotalaria pallidicaulis Harms
• Crotalaria paniculata Willd.
• Crotalaria paracistoides Torre
• Crotalaria paraspartea Polhill
• Crotalaria parvula Baker
• Crotalaria passerinoides Taub.
• Crotalaria patula Polhill
• Crotalaria paulina Schrank
• Crotalaria pearsonii Baker f.
• Crotalaria peduncularis Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria peltieri Polhill
• Crotalaria pentaphylla Baker f.
• Crotalaria perbracteolata Polhill
• Crotalaria peregrina Polhill
• Crotalaria perlaxa Polhill
• Crotalaria perpusilla Collett & Hemsl.
• Crotalaria perrieri R. Vig.
• Crotalaria perrottetii DC.
• Crotalaria persica (Burm. f.) Merr.
• Crotalaria pervillei Baill.
• Crotalaria peschiana P.A. Duvign. & Timp.
• Crotalaria petitiana (A. Rich.) Walp.
• Crotalaria phillipsiae Baker
• Crotalaria phylicoides Wild
• Crotalaria phylloloba Harms
• Crotalaria phyllostachya Gagnep.
• Crotalaria phyllostachys Baker
• Crotalaria pilosa Mill.
• Crotalaria pilosiflora Baker
• Crotalaria pisicarpa Baker
• Crotalaria pittardiana Torre
• Crotalaria platysepala Harv.
• Crotalaria pleiophylla Polhill
• Crotalaria plowdenii Baker
• Crotalaria podocarpa DC.
• Crotalaria poecilantha Polhill
• Crotalaria poissonii R. Vig.
• Crotalaria polhillii Thulin
• Crotalaria poliochlora Harms
• Crotalaria polyantha Taub.
• Crotalaria polychroma Polhill
• Crotalaria polygaloides Baker
• Crotalaria polyphylla L. Riley
• Crotalaria polysperma Kotschy
• Crotalaria polytricha Polhill
• Crotalaria praetexta Polhill
• Crotalaria preladoi Baker f.
• Crotalaria priestleyoides Baker
• Crotalaria prittwitzii Baker f.
• Crotalaria prolongata Baker
• Crotalaria prostrata Willd.
• Crotalaria protensa Baker
• Crotalaria psammophila Harms
• Crotalaria pseudo-alexandri R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria pseudo-seretii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria pseudodiloloensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria pseudoquangensis Torre
• Crotalaria pseudospartium Baker f.
• Crotalaria pseudotenuirama Torre
• Crotalaria pseudovirgultatis Torre
• Crotalaria pterocalyx Harms
• Crotalaria pteropoda Balf. f.
• Crotalaria pterospartioides Torre
• Crotalaria pudica Polhill
• Crotalaria pulchra Andrews
• Crotalaria pumila Ortega
• Crotalaria purdiana Senn
• Crotalaria purshii DC.
• Crotalaria pusilla DC.
• Crotalaria pycnostachya Benth.
• Crotalaria pygmaea Polhill
• Crotalaria quangensis Taub.
• Crotalaria quarrei Baker f.
• Crotalaria quartiniana A. Rich.
• Crotalaria quercetorum Brandegee
• Crotalaria quibeiensis C.Y. Yang
• Crotalaria quinquefolia L.
• Crotalaria ramosissima Roxb.
• Crotalaria reclinata Polhill
• Crotalaria recta A. Rich.
• Crotalaria recumbens Polhill
• Crotalaria renierana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria reptans Taub.
• Crotalaria retusa L.
  • var. retusa L.
  • var. tunguensis (Pires de Lima) Polhill
• Crotalaria rhizoclada Polhill
• Crotalaria rhodesiae Baker f.
• Crotalaria rhynchocarpa Polhill
• Crotalaria rhynchotropioides Baker f.
• Crotalaria rigida B. Heyne
• Crotalaria ringoetii Baker f.
• Crotalaria riparia Polhill
• Crotalaria rogersii Baker f.
• Crotalaria rosenii (Pax) Polhill
• Crotalaria rotundifolia J.F. Gmel.
• Crotalaria rubiginosa Willd.
• Crotalaria rufipila Benth.
• Crotalaria rufocaulis Gilli
• Crotalaria rupicola Baker f.
• Crotalaria ruspoliana Chiov.
• Crotalaria rzedowskii J. Espinosa
• Crotalaria sacculata Chiov.
• Crotalaria sagittalis L.
• Crotalaria saharae Coss.
• Crotalaria salicifolia Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria saltiana Andrews
• Crotalaria sandoorensis Gamble
• Crotalaria sapinii De Wild.
• Crotalaria scabra Gamble
• Crotalaria scabrella Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria scassellatii Chiov.
• Crotalaria schinzii Baker f.
• Crotalaria schlechteri Baker f.
• Crotalaria schliebenii Polhill
• Crotalaria schmitzii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria seemeniana Harms
• Crotalaria semperflorens Vent.[28]
• Crotalaria senegalensis (Pers.) DC.
• Crotalaria sengensis Baker f.
• Crotalaria serengetiana Polhill
• Crotalaria sericifolia Harms
• Crotalaria sertulifera Taub.
• Crotalaria sessiliflora L.
  • subsp. hazarensis Ali
  • subsp. sessiliflora L.
• Crotalaria sessilis De Wild.
• Crotalaria shanica Lace
• Crotalaria shirensis (Baker f.) Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria similis Hemsl.
• Crotalaria simoma Polhill
• Crotalaria simulans Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria singulifloroides R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria smithiana A.T.Lee
• Crotalaria socotrana Balf. f.
• Crotalaria somalensis Chiov.
• Crotalaria sparsifolia Baker
• Crotalaria spartea Baker
• Crotalaria spartioides DC.
• Crotalaria spathulato-foliolata Torre
• Crotalaria speciosa Roth
• Crotalaria spectabilis Roth
• Crotalaria sphaerocarpa DC.
• Crotalaria spinosa Benth.
• Crotalaria stanerana Baker f.
• Crotalaria stenopoda Baker f.
• Crotalaria stenoptera Baker
• Crotalaria stenorhampha Harms
• Crotalaria stenothyrsa Taub.
• Crotalaria steudneri Schweinf.
• Crotalaria stipitata Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria stipularia Desv.
• Crotalaria stocksii Baker
• Crotalaria stolzii (Baker f.) Polhill
• Crotalaria streptorrhyncha Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria strigosa Bojer
• Crotalaria strigulosa Balf. f.
• Crotalaria stuhlmannii Taub.
• Crotalaria subcaespitosa Polhill
• Crotalaria subcalvata Polhill
• Crotalaria subcapitata De Wild.
  • subsp. oreadum (Baker f.) Polhill
  • subsp. subcapitata De Wild.
    • var. pohliana (Benth.) Windler & S. G. Skinner
    • var. subcapitata De Wild.
• Crotalaria subsessilis Harms
• Crotalaria subspicata Polhill
• Crotalaria subtilis Polhill
• Crotalaria sulphizii Thoth. & A.A. Ansari
• Crotalaria sylvicola Baker f.
• Crotalaria szaferana R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria tabularis Baker f.
• Crotalaria tamboensis R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria teixeirae Torre
• Crotalaria tenuipedicellata Baker f.
• Crotalaria tenuirama Baker
• Crotalaria tenuirostrata Polhill
• Crotalaria teretifolia Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria tetragona Andrews
• Crotalaria tetraptera Torre
• Crotalaria thebaica (Delile) DC.
• Crotalaria thomasii Harms
• Crotalaria toamasinae M. Peltier
• Crotalaria topouensis Debb.
• Crotalaria torrei Polhill
• Crotalaria trichotoma Bojer
• Crotalaria trifoliastrum Willd.
• Crotalaria trifoliolata Baker f.
• Crotalaria trinervia Polhill
• Crotalaria triquetra Dalzell
• Crotalaria tristis Polhill
• Crotalaria tsavoana Polhill
• Crotalaria tweediana Benth.
• Crotalaria ubonensis Phon
• Crotalaria uguenensis Taub.
• Crotalaria ukambensis Vatke
• Crotalaria ukingensis Harms
• Crotalaria ulbrichiana Harms
• Crotalaria uliginosa C.C. Huang
• Crotalaria umbellata Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria umbellifera R.E. Fr.
• Crotalaria uncinata Baker
• Crotalaria uncinella Lam.
  • subsp. elliptica (Roxb.) Polhill
  • subsp. uncinella Lam.
• Crotalaria unicaulis Bullock
• Crotalaria unifoliolata Benth.
• †Crotalaria urbaniana Taub.[29]
• Crotalaria vagans Polhill
• Crotalaria valetonii Backer
• Crotalaria valida Baker
• Crotalaria vallicola Baker f.
• Crotalaria vandenbrandii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria vanderystii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria vanmeelii R. Wilczek
• Crotalaria varicosa Polhill
• Crotalaria variegata Baker
• Crotalaria variifolia Polhill
• Crotalaria vasculosa Benth.
• Crotalaria vatkeana Engl.
• Crotalaria velutina Benth.
• Crotalaria ventusa A.A. Ansari
• Crotalaria verdcourtii Polhill
• Crotalaria verrucosa L.
• Crotalaria vespertilio Benth.
• Crotalaria vestita Baker
• Crotalaria vialettei Batt.
• Crotalaria vialis Milne-Redh.
• Crotalaria virgulata Klotzsch
  • subsp. grantiana (Harv.) Polhill
  • subsp. virgulata Klotzsch
• Crotalaria virgultatis DC.
• Crotalaria vitellina Ker. Gawl.
• Crotalaria walkeri Arn.
• Crotalaria warfae Thulin
• Crotalaria welwitschii Baker
• Crotalaria wightiana Wight & Arn.
• Crotalaria wilczekiana Timp.
• Crotalaria willdenowiana DC.
• Crotalaria xanthoclada Benth.
• Crotalaria yaihsienensis T.C. Chen
• Crotalaria youngii Baker f.
• Crotalaria yuanjiangensis C.Y. Yang
• Crotalaria yunnanensis Franch.

See also

• Senna covesii, unrelated plant sometimes also called "rattlepod"

References

1. Boatwright JS, le Roux MM, Wink M, Morozova T, Van Wyk BE (2008). "Phylogenetic relationships of tribe Crotalarieae (Fabaceae) inferred from DNA sequences and morphology". Syst Bot. 33 (4): 752–761. doi:10.1600/036364408786500271. JSTOR 40211942.
2. Cardoso D, Pennington RT, de Queiroz LP, Boatwright JS, Van Wyk BE, Wojciechowski MF, Lavin M (2013). "Reconstructing the deep-branching relationships of the papilionoid legumes". S Afr J Bot. 89: 58–75. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2013.05.001.
3. Everist, S.L. (1979). Poisonous Plants of Australia (2 ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Angus & Robertson Publishers.
4. Eisner T. (2003). For the Love of Insects. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01827-3.
5. Kathirvel, P.; Kumudha, P. (2012). "Comparative Analysis and Nutritional Assessment of Raw Seeds of Crotalaria Species". International Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Sciences. 2 (1): 87–98.
6. Bhatt, KC; Pandey, A; Dhariwal, OP; Panwar, NS; Bhandari, DC (2009). ""Tum-thang" (Crotalaria tetragona Roxb. Ex Andr.): a little known wild edible species in the north-eastern hill region of India". Genet Resour Crop Evol. 56 (5): 729–733. doi:10.1007/s10722-009-9428-0.
7. Johns, T (1996). "Consumption patterns and nutritional contribution of Crotalaria Brevidens (Mitoo) in Tarime District, Tanzania". Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 35 (1): 59–69. doi:10.1080/03670244.1996.9991475.
8. Morton, JF (1994). "Pito (Erythrina berteroana) and chipilin (Crotalaria longirostrata), (fabaceae) two soporific vegetables of Central America.". Economic Botany. 48 (2): 130–138. doi:10.1007/bf02908199.
9. Bell, LW; Bennett, RG; Ryan, MH; Clarke, H (2010). "The potential of herbaceous native Australian legumes as grain crops: a review". Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 26 (1): 72–91. doi:10.1017/s1742170510000347.
10. Mannetje, L.'t. "Crotalaria juncea L." FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Retrieved October 8, 2015.
11. Morris, J. Bradley; Antonius, George F. (February 1, 2013). "Glucose, stem dry weight variation, principal components and cluster analysis for some agronomic traits among 16 regenerated Crotalaria juncea accessions for potential cellulosic ethanol". Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B. 48 (3): 214–218. doi:10.1080/03601234.2013.730333. PMID 23356343.
12. Sikuku, P.; Musyimi, D. (2013). "Responses of slenderleaf rattlebox (Crotalaria ochroleuca) to water deficit". Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences. 3 (12): 245–252.
13. Williams, MC; Molyneux, RJ (1987). "Occurrence, Concentration, and Toxicity of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Crotalaria Seeds". Weed Science. 35 (4): 476–481. doi:10.1017/S0043174500060410. JSTOR 4044515.
14. Hawkeswood, T.J.; Sommung, B. (2018). "Observations on feeding by adults of the Plain Tiger, Danaus chrysippuschrysippus (L, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Bangkok, Thailand, with a review of some literature dealing with flower visitation by the species". Calodema. 602: 1–5.
15. Prasad, V.P.; Kothari, M.J.; Barne, K.B.; Rao, P.S.N. (2008). "Congregation of Danaid butteflies on Crotalaria retusa L. (Fabaceae)". Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India. 50 (104): 193–195.
16. https://g1.globo.com/df/distrito-federal/noticia/2019/03/22/racao-contaminada-mata-13-cavalos-no-df-outros-17-estao-doentes.ghtml
17. Werchan PM, Summer WR, Gerdes AM, McDonough KH (1989). "Right ventricular performance after monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension". Am J Physiol. 256 (5, pt. 2): H1328–H1336. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.1989.256.5.H1328. PMID 2524170.
18. Kosanovic D, Kojonazarov B, Luitel H, Dahal BK, Sydykov A, Cornitescu T, Janssen W, Brandes RP, Davie N, Ghofrani HA, Weissmann N, Grimminger F, Seeger W, Schermuly RT (2011). "Therapeutic efficacy of TBC3711 in monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension". Respir Res. 12: 87. doi:10.1186/1465-9921-12-87. PMC 3141422. PMID 21699729.
19. Arias, L.; Losada, H.; Rendon, A.; Grande, D.; Vieyra, J. (2003). "Evaluation of Chipilin (Crotalaria longirostrata) as a forage resource for ruminant feeding in the tropical areas of Mexico". Livestock Research for Rural Development. 15 (4): 104–115.
20. Palomino, G.; Vazquez, R. (1991). "Cytogenetic Studies in Mexican Populations of Species of Crotalaria L.". Cytologia. 56 (3): 343–351. doi:10.1508/cytologia.56.343.
21. Abukutsa-Onyango, M (2007). "The Diversity of Cultivated African Leafy Vegetables in Three Communities in Western Kenya". African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. 7 (3): 21–24.
22. "ILDIS LegumeWeb entry for Crotalaria". International Legume Database & Information Service. Cardiff School of Computer Science & Informatics. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
23. USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. "GRIN species records of Crotalaria". Germplasm Resources Information Network—(GRIN) [Online Database]. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2014.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
24. Some sources treat Crotalaria lanata as a synonym of Crotalaria beddomeana.
25. Some sources treat Crotalaria lunata as a synonym of Crotalaria beddomeana.
26. Some sources treat Crotalaria mohlenbrockii as a synonym of Crotalaria martiana.
27. Some sources treat Crotalaria montana as a synonym of Crotalaria incana.
28. Some sources treat Crotalaria semperflorens as a synonym of Crotalaria verrucosa.
29. Some sources treat Crotalaria urbaniana as a synonym of Crotalaria ekmanii.

External links

• Crotalaria in West African plants – A Photo Guide.
• "Crotalaria" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.